OpenBook offers project proposal writing help to students seeking to write a comprehensive proposal that demonstrates how they intend to conduct their project. Our services are timely and of high quality to earn you prompt approval to proceed in conducting your project. One of the attributes that make OpenBook one of the best in providing project proposal writing help is our excellence. We ensure our writing services scholarly, comply with your school’s writing requirements, and your proposal is formatted to your satisfaction.
Steps in Writing a Project Proposal
A working title is important in providing the reader with a descriptive overview of what your project will be about. Our writers are able to formulate a short yet detailed title for your proposal with a single focus on a particular issue. Our writers strive to formulate a title that best connects to the elements of your proposed project.
Our writers then write a background study that informs the reader why you feel compelled to conduct a scholarly project on that topic. The background study explains the significance of the study to the specific area being addressed. When writing a background study, our writers are keen to state the objectives of the study as well as the differences between your proposed project and prior research. We ensure that your background study demonstrates thorough research on your topic and in-depth knowledge of the relationship of the proposed study to previous research.
What methodology do you intend to use to obtain relevant data that will contribute to the successful completion of your proposed project? Our writers are experienced in determining the kind of data collection methods that best suits your proposed research. When writing your proposal we include realistic methodologies that are attainable within the given timeframe. OpenBook proposal writing services clearly communicate what sort of information will be collected, how it will be obtained and analyzed and why the methods used are the most suitable ones to help you achieve your objectives.
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An academic project is a formal document whose major sections include an abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusions and recommendations. The process of writing and presenting an academic project is guided by certain rules. These rules may vary depending on the level of education, institution, or the supervisor. OpenBook offers high standard academicproject writing services strictly following the rules provided in order to represent the students’ contribution to the body of knowledge.
Formulating a Project Title of a Project
A comprehensive project title should be brief and must identify the population of interest, and the independent and dependent variables. Students should also adhere to the stipulated requirements related to the length of the project title.
Preparing an Abstract
An abstract should provide a summary of the academic project. Generally, an abstract is placed before the table of contents. A comprehensive abstract should highlight all the essential aspects of the project. Students should be cautious not to exceed the required length of the abstract that is estimated at 150-250 words. A comprehensive summary should highlight the project’s hypothesis, objectives, methodology, and findings.
Guidelines for Writing the Introduction
In the introduction section, the student should highlight the problem area and discuss its significance. A comprehensive introduction should contain the research questions, objectives, and hypotheses that will guide the academic project. Students should distinguish an introduction from a literature review. Whereas the introduction utilizes existing literature to highlight a problem area, the section does not synthesize the referenced studies.
Conducting a Literature Review
Literature review forms the second chapter of dissertations and theses. A comprehensive literature review highlights students’ ability to identify relevant scholarly works and synthesize their findings. Literature reviews should utilize current articles to inform future readers of the existing knowledge and establish a context for conducting their intended academic projects. The contents of a literature review should correlate to the formulated hypothesis and research questions. For example, an academic study may be intended to improve on the existing knowledge related to the implementation of bed alarms as a fall prevention intervention. Consequently, the accompanying literature review should synthesize the current knowledge related to the utilization of bed alarms in hospital settings. A student should highlight the existing knowledge gaps in the available literature that justify the proposed academic project. For instance, previous studies may have investigated the influence of bed alarms in preventing falls among geriatric patients. A student may identify a need to narrow the focus of their research to geriatric patients who have been diagnosed with chronic mental illnesses. A comprehensive literature synthesis should highlight the existing knowledge gap related to the limited studies that focused on a specific population.
Guidelines for Writing the Method/Approach Section
The methodology section should contain a discussion of the design and project implementation plan. The method section should be detailed and comprehensive to promote replicability. A project’s methodology comprises the intended population, setting, instrumentation, data collection, data analysis, and ethical considerations. A subsection may be introduced to discuss the formulated project procedure. The procedure should highlight all the executed steps and treatments performed on the independent variables to study the changes in the dependent variables. The methodology section should also highlight the proposed data analysis techniques. Students should identify the software used and data analysis tests conducted to guarantee the replicability of their academic projects.
Guidelines for Writing the Findings and Discussion Sections
The length of the findings section often varies between qualitative and quantitative projects. The findings of a qualitative study may be lengthy because of the need to discuss the identified themes and their correlation to the formulated research questions. In the case of quantitative research, the findings ought to be tabulated because they fundamentally comprise statistics. The findings section should be followed by a discussion of the implications of the concluded academic project. The discussion section explains the observed outcomes. A comprehensive discussion should highlight the identified limitations and provide a basis for conducting future studies.
Factors to Consider When Writing an Academic Project
Students may sometimes have several ideas on their academic project but no specific research question. Our writers, therefore, come in handy to help you identify a topic that will address specific research questions. They do so by thoroughly examining previous Scholarly sources to identify areas that need further research. After identifying a topic, the next important stage is to refine your topic to bring out what issue you are investigating. Our writers offer expert help to enable you bring out your argument and clearly outline the problem or gap you want to address.
Conducting literature review is an important step in project writing. You need to be able to demonstrate why your research is important and how it will expand on knowledge in that particular field. Our company helps you conduct a literature review, which is a review of material that has already been published in relevant peer-reviewed journal articles and books. Our writers through years of experience are keen on using references that you or your supervisor recommended and that are most recent and relevant to your project. There are ethical considerations for all academic projects regardless of methodology. When offering help in writing academic projects, our writers help you strengthen your project by addressing ethics that govern project writing. Our writers understand that academic projects that do not observe ethics may be rejected.
Why Seek our Project Writing Services?
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To ensure thoroughness, an editor is assigned to supervise your work after you make your project writing services order. The editor ensures your work is done thoroughly with every instruction taken into account. OpenBook Project Team is also responsible for ensuring you are satisfied with our services by following up to see if you may need any revisions on your work. OpenBook does not charge extra cost for work revision. In case you would like to make an inquiry on help in writing academic projects, feel free to contact us on whatsapp number: 2348028999115 or click
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND JOB INVOLVEMENT AS PREDICTORS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to determine whether emotional intelligence and job involvement can predict organisational citizenship behavior- OCBI and OCBO among selected private sector organizations in Enugu Metropolis. A total of three hundred and seventy four (374) participants, 205 males and 169 females, ages 20-69 years (Mean= 35.14, S.D= 1.18) were involved in this study. They were selected using convenient sample method from PRODA, Emene, and INNOSSON Plastic Co., Emene. 146 out of the participants indicated that they were married, 190, single and 38 divorced. A structured questionnaire composing of four sections and three instruments were used for data collection with the first section eliciting demographic data from the participants. Workplace Emotional Intelligence Profile short version (WEIP-S), Job involvement Scale (JIS) and Organizational Citizenship Behavior Checklist (OCB-C) formed the subsequent sections of the questionnaire. The study was a cross-sectional study using the survey research approach. Multiple Regression analyses was used to test the hypotheses using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS v23). The emotional intelligence was found to make significant positive contribution in predicting organizational citizenship behaviour. It was also found that Job involvement made statistically significant contribution in predicting organizational citizenship behaviour.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The fact that every organization desires employees who will perform beyond their usual duties and expectations for organizational growth and sustainability cannot be considered baseless. Extra-role behaviors, which are behaviors that are not prescribed by job descriptions and may be similar across jobs, and serve the accomplishment of organizational goals is of considerable importance in an organization (Katz, 1964). Although defining specific roles for each job reduces human variability and increases predictability of the quality and quantity of the performance, individuals should be encouraged to engage in spontaneous and innovative behaviors that may help the organization to survive (Öztürk, 2010). Katz and Kahn (1966) stated that organizational well-functioning heavily depends on extra-role behaviors. Managers therefore need employees who do more than what is described in the work contract. Specifically speaking, what managers look out for is Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCBs) (Öztürk, 2010), which were explained by Organ (1988:4) as “discretionary behaviors, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system and that in aggregate promote the effective functioning of the organization”. Such discretionary behaviors which are not specified by role prescriptions are vital for achieving organizational goals (Öztürk, 2010). OCB which is employees’ voluntary performance of tasks or duties that are not part of those specified officially is of immense importance in any organization. OCBs are not within the role or range provided by job descriptions as it is not a clear employment contract and does not attract reward when exhibited nor attract express punishment when ignored (Gabriel, 2015).
As Katz (1964) identified, it is not possible for an organization to foresee all contingencies within its operations, or to anticipate environmental changes accurately, or to control human variability perfectly. Therefore, an organization which depends solely upon its blueprints of prescribed behavior for workers is a very fragile social system (Katz, 1964). Therefore, the necessary things for organizational survival and effectiveness is employees who contribute to organizational functioning by engaging in extra role behaviors such as assisting co-workers, avoiding frequent faultfinding, defending the organisation whenever occasion demands (Gabriel, 2015), helping a new co-worker or one that has heavy workload, voluntarily attending and actively participating in unit meetings, paying attention to self- development to become versatile and being flexible in terms of tasks that can be performed, and not complaining about petty problems (Öztürk, 2010).
Allen and Rush (1998) stated that organizational citizenship behaviors when aggregated over time and persons become important since they facilitate the accomplishment of organizational goals and enhance organizational performance; hence, it promotes the effective functioning of the organisation (Organ, 1998; Allen & Meyer, 1990; Bolino & Turnley, 2003; Shroudt & Wolfle, 2002; Shrrodt, Cawyer & Sanders, 2003).
The evolution of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour is traceable to Bateman and Organ (1983) who assigned the label of organisational citizenship behaviour to a type of behaviour Katz and Kahn referred to as spontaneous behaviour or extra – role behaviour (Van Dyne, Cummings & Parks, 1995); Civic organizational behaviour (Graham, 1991); Prosocial organizational behaviour (George, 1990, 1991); Organisational spontaneity (George & Johnes, 1997) and contextual performance (Borman & Motowildo, 1993, 1997).
Records from empirical research has shown that OCBs benefit the organizations in many ways such as customer satisfaction, quality and quantity of the service or product, sales performance, customer complaints, and revenue (Karambayya, 1990; Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 1994; MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Ahearne, 1998; Walz & Niehoff, 1996; Koys, 2001; Podsakoff, Whiting, Podsakoff, & Blume, 2009; Öztürk, 2010). Podsakoff et al (2009) defined certain ways by which OCBs may affect organizational performance. These were organized by Öztürk (2010) as follow:
OCBs might enhance both coworker and managerial productivity. OCBs may also free up resources for more productive purposes and reduce the need to devote scarce resources to purely maintenance functions. Moreover, OCBs may serve as effective means of coordinating activities between team members and across work groups. OCBs may also enhance the organization’s ability to attract and retain the best people by making it a more attractive place to work. Additionally, OCBs may enhance the stability of organizational performance by reducing variability. Furthermore, OCBs may improve an organization’s ability to adapt to environmental changes. Lastly, OCBs may enhance organizational effectiveness by creating social capital. (2010:3).
Organisational citizenship behaviour is a multidimensional construct. Literature is saturated with plethora of organisational citizenship behaviour dimensions. For example, several researchers (Graham, 1986; Morrison, 1994; Smith, Organ & Near, 1983, Organ, 1988) posit that there are five dimensions: Altruism, Conscientiousness, Civic virtue, Courtesy; and Sportsmanship; whereas Podsakoff et al, (2009) developed seven dimensions: (1) Helping behaviour, (2) Sportsmanship, (3) Organisational Loyalty, (4) Organisational compliance, (5) Individual initiative, (6) Civic Virtue, and (7) Self Development. Williams and Anderson, (1991) simply divided organisational citizenship behaviours into OCBI- behaviours directed at individual members of the organisation and OCBO- behaviours directed at the organisation.
Since it is agreeable upon that even with all advancements in ICT and other machines and devices, workers in an organization are the main value creators in the organizations and the organizations’ success depends on their performance, it will be an important task for research to identify the variables that trigger workers’ commitment in OCBs. Therefore, the present study aims to discover the variables that influence engagement in OCBs in workers. Among numerous variables available, the present study concentrates on the recently thriving variable, Emotional intelligence and workers’ involvement in the job (Job Involvement) to see the influence these would have on OCBs-directed towards individual colleagues (OCBI) and towards the organization (OCBO).
Emotional Intelligence took its origin from the concept of Social Intelligence of Salovey (1990) who defined Emotional Intelligence as the sub set of Social Intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions (James, Velayudhan & Gayatridevi, 2010). From the time of the publication of Goleman’s (1995) book, emotional intelligence (EI) has been a passionately debated topic. Some proponents of EI claim it can predict various work-related outcomes, including job performance (Bachman, Stein, Campbell, & Sitarenios, 2000) and turnover (Goleman, 1998). Also, there is accumulating evidence that EI abilities and traits influence organizational citizenship behavior (Daus & Ashkanasy, 2005; Van Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2004).
Even beyond cognitive intelligence, emotional intelligence is valuable to everyone in the organization. James et al (2010) opined that emotional Intelligence becomes a stronger predictor of task performance and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour directed to Organization (OCBO) as Cognitive Intelligence decreases. Employees with low Cognitive Intelligence perform tasks correctly and engage in Organizational Citizenship Behaviour directed to Organization frequently if they are Emotionally Intelligent (Cote & Miners, 2006).
Goleman (1995) identified the dimensions of Emotional Intelligence in the workplace which are Self-awareness, Self-management, Self-motivation, Empathy and Social skills. In a more recent work than the Goleman (1995), James et al (2010) organized the focus of Emotional Intelligence in the work place in two aspects: Self-mastery job capabilities such as self-confidence, initiative, trustworthiness and achievement drive that contribute to outstanding performance and Relationship-skills such as empathy, political awareness, leveraging diversity, team capabilities and leadership that result in effective organization.
Most of the organizations work on Emotional Intelligence for selecting adaptable employees and also for development of employees for team effectiveness which can lead to organizational effectiveness (James et al, 2010). The employee that is emotionally intelligent can keep up with a healthy relationship with other coworkers and this implies that developing emotional intelligence in workers may develop in them good citizens for the organization.
On the other part of this study is Job involvement which was first introduced by Lodahl and Kejner (1965) with a definition that it is the psychological identification of an individual with the work or importance of work in that individual’s self-image. Kanungo (1982) defined job involvement as psychological identification with a job. According to Nwibere (2014) job involvement is how people see their jobs as both a relationship with the working environment, the job itself and how their work and life are commingled. The foregoing definition implies that employees who are highly involved in their job will see work “as an important part of their self-concept” (Lawler & Hall, 1970), and that jobs “define one’s self-concept in a major way” (Kanungo, 1982).
According to Dubin (1956) job involvement is conceptualized as the degree to which the total job situation is a “central life interest”, that is, the degree to which it is perceived to be a major source for the satisfaction of important needs. Job involvement is a function of the satisfaction of eminent personal needs (Kanungo, 1982). Kanungo (1982) suggests a reformulation of the job Involvement construct to be viewed as a form of psychological identification enhanced by a cognitive or belief state.
According to Nwibere (2014), “the majority view is that job involvement has four different aspects and as such individuals are said to be job-involved when: firstly, work to them is a central life interest; secondly, when they actively participates in their job; thirdly, when they perceive performance as central to their self-esteem; and fourthly, when they perceive performance as consistent with their self-concept” (2014:324). There are a number of attitudes and behaviors that have been linked to job involvement; turnover or intent to leave (Baba & Jamal, 1991; Huselid & Day, 1991), job satisfaction (Gerpott, 1990; Patterson & O’Driscoll, 1990; Baba & Jamal, 1991; Mathieu & Farr, 1991) work performance, sense of achievement and unexplained absenteeism (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977). Dimitriades (2007) in describing highly job involved individuals stated the following:
Highly job involved individuals generally seem to be satisfied with their jobs, to be in characteristic positive moods at work and to be highly committed to their employing organizations, their careers, and their professions. Moreover, job involved individuals believe that personal and organizational goals are compatible. (2007:476)
Given that job involvement has been shown to be related to the various organisational outcomes listed above, it is assumed that it may also be related to or be a predictor of OCB. Chen and Chiu (2009) is in support of the foregoing in their suggestion that employees that have high degree of job involvement among all other things are also more likely to increase their self-respect through successful job performance and display of organizational beneficial behaviors even those behaviors beyond their main job roles as stipulated in their organizations blue print.
Statement of Problem
It is factual and evidence based to argue that high performing organisations rely heavily on employees who exceed their contractual duties to discharge official tasks successfully and that organisations could hardly survive or prosper without their members behaving as good citizens by engaging in all sorts of positive behaviours (Gabriel, 2015). The importance of good citizenship for organisations has made understanding of the nature and sources of OCB a high priority for organisational scholars (Organ, 1988) and remains so still (Gabriel, 2015). Prominent and current organisational researchers, including George and Brief (1992) have supported Organ’s argument regarding the importance of effectiveness of those behaviours he labeled as OCB (Gabriel, 2015).
Organisations in the present dispensation must as a matter of necessity boast of employees who are really citizens of the organization and can transcend their normal role assignment and perform other pro social behaviours here referred to as Organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) in order to maintain an adaptive, robust, resourceful, flexible, responsive and rapid work environment (Gabriel, 2015) that will enhance workers’ performance and organizational growth.
Admitting that the work force (i.e. workers) is the most important element of organizations and the organizations’ success depends on the performance of this workforce, identifying the variables that trigger engagement of organizations’ work force in OCBs is really reasonable. Some of the workers do not present with the capacity to engage in OCBs. You would usually hear from some workers, “this is not what I was called to do in this place” or “I know my work, am not responsible for that …” even at the expense of the organization’s progress. This therefore is the problem this present study is driven to solve. The drive then is to investigate the predictive stand of emotional intelligence and job involvement on organisational citizenship behavior (directed to individual colleagues and directed to the organization) in some selected private sector organizations in Enugu Metropolis.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study in general term is to determine whether emotional intelligence and job involvement can predict organisational citizenship behavior- OCBI and OCBO among selected private sector organizations in Enugu Metropolis.
Specifically, the study will seek to determine whether:
Emotional intelligence would significantly predict OCB among staff of PRODA and INNOSSON Plastic Co. Emene.
Job involvement would significantly predict OCB among staff of PRODA and INNOSSON Plastic Co. Emene.
Operational Definition of Key Variables
Organizational Citizenship Behavior: This is a person’s level of voluntary commitment within the organization or company that is not part of his or her contractual tasks. It is measured using the 20-Item Organizational Citizenship Behavior Checklist (OCB-C) by Fox and Spector (2011).
Emotional Intelligence: This is the level of one’s awareness of his/her own emotions, management of his/her own emotions, awareness of others’ emotions, and management of others’ emotions in the workplace measured using the four factor, 16 items Workplace Emotional Intelligence Profile short version (WEIP-S) by Jordan and Lawrence (2009).
Job Involvement: Job involvement is one’s psychological identification with a job assessed with a 10-item Kanungo (1982) Job involvement Scale (JIS).
This study investigated the impact of personality and motivation on worker’s burnout. Participants were one hundred and twenty one (121) comprising male and female secondary school students (SS 3) of University of Nigeria secondary school, Enugu campus, who were randomly selected. Their ages ranged between 14 to 18 years with a mean age of 31.86 years (SD = 8.66). Between subject design was adopted. One instrument was used for data collection. Type A behaviour Scale (Omoluabi 1997). Two hypotheses were tested. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was the main statistic used for data analysis. ANOVA result showed that personality type did not significantly have impact on academic performance of secondary school students F (1, 117) = 82.50, p>.05. One practical implications of the finding is that developing extrovert personality in secondary school students is key to having more productivity among young ones. Limitations and suggestions for further studies were equally made.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
There is an international concern on academic performance of students (Romerhausen, 2013). Globally and Nigeria in particular, improving the quality of education and investment on educational and human resources are regarded as effective factors paving the way for a country’s pervasive development. Improvement of students’ academic performance is also among the basic goals of educational planning. And it’s through academic performance that students can fully actualize their talents and capabilities in line with educational goals. Notably, academic performance is considered as one important criteria of educational quality. Therefore, without doubt academic performance presently is a major issue among students, teachers, parents, school administrators, and the community at large. Researchers have made several attempts to unravel the complexities surrounding academic performance (Ikpi, Enya & Johnny, 2014). For example, psychology researchers have put forward a lot of reasons why disparities in achievement among young people exist (Ikpi, Enya & Johnny, 2014). As noted by these researchers, a lot of attention had been paid to external factors such as type of school, teaching methods, school location, instructional materials, quality of lecturers and their experience.
Academic performance is considered an intellectual competence indicator. Opinions vary as to why some students excel academically while others appear to be underachievers. As a result, many psychologists have consistently attempted to identify the major predictors of individual academic performance. Academic performance on examinations is the result of interactions among multiple variables such as learning. Learning occupies a significant role in the life of students (Mangal & Mangal 2009). It means modification of behaviour (Dutt, 2007) that is measured using the yardstick of academic performance. People have different learning styles that are reflected in different academic strengths, weaknesses, skills, and interests. It has often been asserted that academic performance can be explained largely by factors such as individual initiative, effort, and merit (Timothy, & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2007)
Although education is not the only road to success in the working world, much effort is made to identify, evaluate, track and encourage the progress of students in schools (Bell, 2017). Parents care about their child’s academic performance because they believe good academic results will provide more career choices and job security (Bell, 2017). Similarly, schools invested in fostering good academic habits for the same reason. For example they often influence concerns about school’s reputation and the possibility of monetary aid from government institutions, which shows the overall academic performance of the school.
In the past, academic performance of secondary school students was not measured using the present form of using numerical method. Teachers’ observations made up the bulk of the assessment, and today’s summation, or numerical, method of determining how well a student is performing is a fairly recent invention. Grading systems came into existence in the United States in the late Victorian period and were initially criticized due to high subjectivity. However, performance results also allow students to be ranked and sorted on a scale that is numerically obvious, minimizing complaints by holding teachers and schools accountable for the components of every grade.
Academic performance for some researchers is defined by students’ reporting of past semester CGPA/GPA and their expected GPA for the current semester. The grade point average or GPA is now used by most of the tertiary institutions as a convenient summary measure of the academic performance of their students. The GPA is a better measurement because it provides a greater insight into the relative level of performance of individuals and different group of students.
Academic performance is the extent to which a student has achieved their short or long-term educational goals (Ward, Stoker, & Murray-Ward 1996). Cumulative GPA and completion of educational degrees such as High School and bachelor’s degrees represent academic performance.
Academic performance is commonly measured through examinations or continuous assessments but there is no general agreement on how it is best evaluated or which aspects are most important — procedural knowledge such as skills or declarative knowledge such as facts (Bhagat 2013) . Furthermore, there are inconclusive results over which individual factors successfully predict academic performance, elements such as test anxiety, environment, motivation, and emotions require consideration when developing models of school performance (Mosche, 1998). But individual differences in academic performance have been linked to differences in intelligence and personality (Sophie, Benedikt, & Tomas 2011). Students with higher mental ability as demonstrated by IQ tests and those who are higher in conscientiousness (linked to effort and achievement motivation) tend to achieve highly in academic settings. A recent meta-analysis suggested that mental curiosity (as measured by typical intellectual engagement) has an important influence on academic achievement in addition to intelligence and conscientiousness (Sophie, Benedikt, & Tomas 2011). Cognitive factors or learning factors are the extent to which a person’s individual capabilities can influence their academic or learning performance. These factors include cognitive functions like attention, memory, and reasoning. Undergraduate students with high academic performance present mature learning beliefs, and a strong knowledge integration (Brenda Ann Marie 2014). Research has also found that students with higher academic performance, motivation and persistence use intrinsic goals rather than extrinsic ones (Leslie & Ingrid 2013). Furthermore, students who are motivated to improve upon their previous or upcoming performance tend to perform better academically than peers with lower motivation (Barry, & Rhonda 2011). In other words, students with higher need for achievement have greater academic performance.
As noted earlier, research showed that there are also non-cognitive factors, personality for example responsible for high academic performance. Personality is now a relevant factor studied in relationship with academic performance. For some researchers another major factor that is believed to be responsible for academic performance in students is their personality traits.
There is some evidence that personality intricately tied with individual differences in learning styles, and it is recommended that educators go beyond the current emphasis on cognition and include this variables (type A and type B personalities) in understanding academic behaviour (Komarraju, Karau, Schmeck, & Alen 2011).
Personality is the sum total of the behavioural and mental characteristics that are distinctive of an individual (Colamn, 2009). It refers to individuals’ unique and relatively stable patterns of behaviour, thoughts and feelings (Baron, 2006). The nature of individuals varies, the personality of the individuals too varies and this is the law of nature and this varying nature has a tremendous impact on making life a success or a failure, including the life of the students.
Academic performance criteria differ substantially and may have conflicting relationships with the independent variable, personality types (Trapmann et al., 2007, Clark and Schroth, 2010; Komarraju & Karau, 2005). Extraversion (type A personality) and introversion (type B personality) factors may relate in different ways to performance, given different aspects of it (Komarraju & Karau, 2005). Extraversion-Introversion (EI) represents the process through which a person is energized. Is the individual’s primary interest in the outer world of people and things or the inner world of ideas and concepts?
The multitude of individuals’ personality may be classified as introverts and extroverts, a classification originally made by Carl Jung, and reinforced by Eysenck. Although Eyesenck believes that the concepts of Introversion-Extroversion did not originate in Jung but had a 2000 years history in Philosophy and Medicine of Hippocrates and Galden that combined Biological Constitution and Psychology (Dandapandi, 2006). The theory of person-situation interaction predicts that the extrovert will adapt best when he is asked to collaborate with others and that the introvert will adapt best when she is asked to carry out tasks independently (Santrock, 2006). Extroverted individuals are outgoing, sociable and assertive; introverts are quiet and shy (Robbins, 2005). Extraverts prefer to be in the company of others while the introverts in being alone or with a chosen few. John Bearden places ‘extroversion and introversion’ as the first dimension, considering its significance and value.
Empirical studies confirm that personality contributes to personal achievement to at least some degree in education (e.g. Neuenschwander et al., 2013, Laidra et al., 2007), to decisions about the choice of academic major and profession (e.g. Borges & Gibson, 2005, Cano & Garton, 1994, Hartung et al., 2005, Dunning, 2001, Hinton & Stockburger, 1991, Sears et al., 1997, Ditiberio & Hammer, 1993, Borges & Savickas, 2002), to performance in vocational, professional and higher education (e.g. Borg & Shapiro, 1996, Borg & Stranahan, 2002a, Borg & Stranahan, 2002b, Ziegert, 2000, Ditiberio & Hammer, 1993).
The present study is aimed at studying the influence of personality type on academic performance of students. The study would yield findings, based on which academic performance of students could be improved in tune with their personality types as ‘research is directed towards the solution of a problem (Best & Kahn, 2001).
Personality can be defined as organized patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviors. It is consistency in a person’s way of being, that is his particular ways of perceiving, thinking, acting and reacting as a person (Hofstee, & Willem, 1994) accounted for this negative relationship; in other words, highly extroverted students are more likely to spend their time on social and extra-curricular activities in comparison to less extroverted students.
Some studies have indicated that academic performance is positively associated with extroversion (Laidra et al. 2007; Lounsbury et al. 2003a). According to Duckworth and Seligman (2005) extroversion is one of the Personality factors having the most interesting relationship with academic performance. Although Melissa, Sampo & Panonon (2007) found a negative relationship between these two variables, Chomoro & Furnham (2003a) reporting the reverse. Based on previous studies, Dunsmore (2005) relates higher levels of extroversion to higher academic performance among students (especially at lower academic levels), and to lower academic performance at higher educational levels. Such model of results might reflect transition from informal, interactional and class-oriented environment at elementary schools to a more academic, study-oriented and knowledge-based environment at high schools and college settings. Furnham, Zhang, & Chamoro, (2006) found a negative relationship between extroversion and achievement at higher education; they believed students’ interpersonal as well as intrapersonal skills accounted for this negative relationship; in other words, highly extroverted students are more likely to spend their time on social and extra-curricular activities in comparison to less extroverted students.
Although results of studies trying to predict academic performance have yielded different results, they have consistently pointed out the role of personality characteristics in academic performance (Paunonen & Ashton, 2001). Educators have always asked whether people’s personality characteristics can help them attain higher academic achievement.
Elements of personality type can influence outcomes on aptitude tests, which measure a student’s ability to learn (ie, future performance), as well as achievement tests, which identify what a student has learned. The correlation with the overall grade of the final academic year reveals that there is no significant relationship between extraversion and the performance during the entire final academic year. Hence, the relationship between extraversion and academic performance is controversial. Several studies have concluded that there is no reason to talk about a relationship between extraversion and academic performance (Heaven, Mak, Barry & Ciarrochi 2002; Ackerman & Heggestad 1997). Others suggest that extraversion is not clearly linked with academic performance or whether the correlation between these two variables is positive or negative. Studies have found both positive and negative correlations between this personality factors and academic performance. The inconsistency of extraversion can be explained by two ideas. First, extraversion can be a predictor of high academic performance because extraverts are more active, ask more questions, which can help them learn more effectively (Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham 2005). Secondly, extraverts often have an active social life, and this can interfere with activities devoted to studying because the time spent for learning or documentation is reduced. For this reason, extraverts tend to have a higher number of absences in school. Introverts, by failing emphasis on socialization, have more time for themselves, time they can spend on studying (Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham 2003, 2005]).
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The problem of underperformance/achievement has assumed a worrisome dimension in the Nigerian educational system. Desperate to make it anyhow, students have devised various illegal means to succeed in examinations, and academic activities even when they are not academically competent. And unfortunately, the system has buckled under the pressure. Examination malpractice has risen steadily to become a seemingly untameable monster. It is increasingly becoming difficult to equate competence of people with supposed academic performance as represented in their certificates. Many candidates are unable to defend the result they supposedly acquired honourably. And of course this has consistently led to inability to compete effectively in the job market which has become a serious issue. Several factors have been researched into in the past as to the cause of this social malaise, but there seem to be indications that some hidden factors may be responsible that needs unravelling. This desire to see this problem curbed gave rise to this study and the researchers’ aim is to see if there is a way in which the personality traits can help, especially from the perspective of the analytical and scientific approach of measurement and evaluation. The researcher has consequently chosen to explore this problem among the students. Academic performance among students has become crucial and can be very beneficial in career pursuit after school as well in repositioning the life of students. Over there have been stories of Nigerian students who performed excellently in various disciplines. But the percentage of these excellent performing students is still far compared to the teeming population of students in our country. Hence, one could imagine if these excellent students are of different personality. Therefore, the present study is aimed at examining the impact of personality traits on academic performance of students.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the study is to find out whether; extrovert personality type and introvert personality type will significantly impact on academic performance of students.
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS
Personality: This is defined in this study as the combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual’s distinctive character which can be extroverted or introverted as measured by type A behaviour scale developed by (Omoluabi 1997). Academic Performance: This is operationalized as the extent to which a student has achieved in his/her educational goals for the period of the study as indicated by the student’s cumulative grade point.
ROLE OF PARENTING STYLE AND FAMILY SUPPORT IN READINESS TO CHANGE CANNABIS USE AMONG YOUNG ADULTS
ABSTRACT
This study examined the influence of parenting styles and family support on readiness to change cannabis use in Enugu metropolis. A total of four hundred and twenty seven (427) participants, 276 males and 151 females, ages 18-40 years (M = 25.31, SD = 5.44) were involved in this study. They were selected using convenient and snow ball method from street cannabis users in Abakpa, Emene, and Thinkers corner, Obiagu, Achalla Layout and Garriki. Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ), Perceived Social Support Scale-Family (PSS-Fa) and Readiness to Change Questionnaire (RCQ) was instruments used to collect data for the study. Correlation result indicated that father’s authoritativeness, father’s authoritarianism; father’s permissiveness, mother’s authoritativeness and mother’s permissiveness had significant relationship with readiness to change cannabis use; while family support, gender, age and mother’s authoritarianism had non- significant relationship with readiness to change cannabis use. The data obtained for this present study were cross checked for accuracy. In testing for parenting styles and family support as factors of Readiness to change cannabis use, the data obtained from the participants were analyzed by computing the means, standard deviations and correlations among the variables of study as well as the demographic variables. The first hypothesis tested in the study stated that parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian and permissive) of the father would significantly predict readiness to change cannabis use among young adults. The result of the study showed that among the three dimensions of father’s parenting styles, only the father’s authoritativeness supported the hypothesis as it made a statistically significant positive contribution in predicting readiness to change cannabis use, while other dimensions (authoritarianism and permissiveness) did not support the hypothesis because they did not make statistically significant contributions in predicting readiness to change cannabis use among the sampled young adults. The second hypothesis tested in the study stated that parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian and permissive) of the mother would significantly predict readiness to change cannabis use among young adults. The result of the study showed that among the three dimensions of mother’s parenting styles, none of the supported this hypothesis because none turned out to significantly predict readiness to change cannabis use among the sampled young. The third hypothesis tested in the study stated that level of family support would significantly predict readiness to change cannabis use among young adults. The result of the study did not support this hypothesis because family support did not significantly predict readiness to change cannabis use among the sampled young adults. It was also found that none of the mothers parenting style and family support made statistically significant contribution in predicting readiness to change cannabis use.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
According to 2010 report of the United Nations on drugs and crime estimated that between 155 and 250 million people approximately or 3.5% to 5.7% of the world population aged 15-64 have used drugs at least once in the last 12months, There is increasing trend in psychoactive substance use and abuse in African countries (Adelekan, Ndom, Makajuola, Parakoyi, Osagbemi, Fabgemi, & Pute 2000 and Ready, Resnicow, Omardien, & Kambara, 2007). In this trend, cannabis use and abuse is taking its fair share and mostly young adults are trapped down in the mess.
This trend seems to be very common or conversant during adolescent period spanning though early adulthood and causing social, physical, health, and mental complications; previous empirical studies indicate that both males and females engage in the use of cannabis (World Drug Report, 2008). Nigeria for example, where cannabis abuse was uncommon many decades ago, there is today ample visual evidence of cannabis use on the roadsides and motor parks of most urban centers where young adults could be seen using cannabis (Rasheed & Ismaila, 2010). These increased usage, no doubt has a number of implications. Cannabis use and abuse has continued to increase both social and public health issues.
World Drug Report (2008) statistics held that about 200,000 peoples die from drug use worldwide, affecting not only drug user but also the family members, friends, co-workers and communities. Drug use (including the use of illicit drugs, alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana/cannabis etc.) is widespread and this wide distribution increases the burden of disease related and behavior related drug use problem. According to World Health Organization Global status report on marijuana and health, the harmful use of marijuana (cannabis) is a causal factor in 60 types of diseases and injuries, resulting in appropriately 15 million deaths every year. These death make up almost 3% of all death worldwide e.g. marijuana has been indicated to be responsible for 5 million deaths annually, for most European and Asian countries, opiates continue to be the main drug of abuse and account for 62% of all treatment demand, in south America, drug related treatment continues to be mainly linked to the use of cocaine (59% of all treatment demand), but in African, the bulk of all treatment demand is link to cannabis 64% (WHO, 2004).
Cannabis, commonly known as marijuana and numerous other names (India hemp, ganja, bush, igbo, we-we, gbanaa, hashish etc.), is a preparation of the cannabis plant intended for use as a psychoactive drug and as medicine (Harcout, 2007). Pharmacologically, the principle of psychoactive constituent of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol, it is one of the most 283 known compounds in the plant (Russo, 2013) including at least 84 other cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol, cannabinol, tetrahydrocannabivarin, (El-Aify, Ivery, Robison, Ahmed, Radwan, Slade, Khan, Elsohly & Rossb, 2010) and cannabigerol according to United nation of drug commission UNODC (2009). The three main forms of cannabis products are the flower, resin (hashish) and oil (hash oil). The UNODC (2009) states that cannabis flower is often 5%tetrahydrocannabivarin, (THC) content, resin can contain up to 20% THC content while, cannabis oil may contain more than 60% THC content.
Cannabis is being consumed in many different ways (Golubi, 2012): smoking, which typically involves inhaling vaporized cannabinoids (smoke) from small pipes, bongs (portable versions of hookahs with water chamber), paper-wrapped joints or tobacco leaf-wrapped blunt, roach clips and other items (Tasman, Kay, Lieberman, First & Maj, 2011). It has a proactive and physiological effects when consumed (Conaivi, Sugiura, & Marzo, 2005). The immediate desired effects of consuming cannabis include relaxation and mild euphoria (the “high or stoned” feeling), while some immediately undesired side-effects include a decrease in short-term memory, dry mouth, impaired motor skills and reddening of the eyes, feeling of paranoid or anxiety (Hall & Paula, 2003). Aside from a subjective change in perception and mood, the most common short-term physical and neurological effects include increased heart rate, increased appetite and consumption of food lowered blood pressure, impairment of short-term or working memory, (Mathre, 1997; Riedel & Darvies, 2005), impaired psychomotor co-ordination and concentration.
Other ways of using cannabis is as recreational or medicinal drug, and as part of religious or spiritual rites. The medicinal value of cannabis is disputed; the American Society of Addiction Medicine (2005) dismisses the concept of medical cannabis because of concerns about its potential for dependence and adverse health effects and that significant aspect such as content, production and supply are unregulated. The FDA approves of the prescription of two products (not for smoking) that have pure THC in a small controlled dose as the active substance (Scholastic, 2012).
Cannabis use became a public health issues in Nigeria in the 1960s with the discovery of cannabis farm in the country, arrests of Nigeria cannabis trafficker abroad, and reports of psychological disorders suspected to be associated with cannabis use, (Obot, 2003). By the 1980s the abuse of cocaine and heroin was added to the public health burden Soldiers and the sailors returning from Second World War introduced cannabis in Nigeria (Obot, 2003). The most abused illicit drug in Nigeria is India hemp mainly in its herbal form. This is due to the fact that cannabis is home grown and relatively cheap, the price of one unit of cannabis is often about the same as that of a bottle of beer (UNODC, 2013). At 14.3%, the country has the highest one year prevalence rate of cannabis use in Africa (UNOGC, 2011, Onifade, Somoye, Ogunwale, Akinhanmi, &Adason, 2013).
The burden of use and effects of marijuana and other psychoactive substances on the youth is assuming a dangerous dimension (Eneh, 2004; Pela, 1989 and Stanley & Saline 1991). In a study by Eneh (2004) among secondary schools students in River State Nigeria, the prevalence rate of cannabis use was found to be 20%. However, like study among young adult and high school in Zambia and Santiago Chile bad prevalence rate of 10% and 7.3% respectively (Haworth 1982: Florenzo, Mautelli, Madrid, Martini & Salazar, 1982).
In a neurological study by Albert, Bhattacharyya, Yucel, Poli, Crippa, Nogue, Torrens, Puyol, Farre and Santors, (2013) comparing different structural and functional imaging studies showed morphological brain alteration in the long-term cannabis users which were found to possibly correlate to cannabis exposure, further more study by Santors, Fagundo, Crippa, Atakan, Bhattacharyya and Allen (2010) found resting blood flow to be lower globally and in prefrontal areas of the brain in cannabis users, when compared to non-users. It was also shown that giving cannabis correlate with increased blood flow in these areas, and facilitated activations of the anterior cingulated cortex and frontal cortex when participants were presented with assignment demanding use of cognitive capacity. Both reviews noted that some of the studies that they examined had methodological limitations, for example, small sample size, or not distinguishing adequately between cannabis and alcohol consumption.
Within the treatment field, there is growing recognition that individuals vary in their readiness to change (Carey, Purnine, Maisto&Carey, 1999A). For instance, Prochaska, Diclements & Norcross (1992) have provided a useful heuristic for understanding varying levels of motivation for change, within their trans-theoretical model, they represent the continuous and cyclic process by which people change addictive behaviors as Pre-contemplation, Contemplation, Preparation for action and Maintenance. It is noted that the vast majority of persons addicted to substance are not in the action stage (Prochaska & Diclements, 1992). Even persons admitted to alcohol and drug treatment programs vary in their level of motivation for change (Diclement, & Hughes, 1990).
Readiness to change may be considered a motivational state that is strong influence by cognitive, affective, environmental and interpersonal events (Diclemente, 1993). In addition, the notion of decisional balance (eg, subjective pro and cons or benefits and cost of certain behavior) has been identified as a related construct that is a sensitive marker of normal movement through the early stages of change (Prochaka, Velicier & Rossi, 1999a). It is important to distinguish between readiness to change and motivation for change.
Readiness to change is the overarching construct motivation for change and can be considered an internal cognition, affective state considered necessary for behavior change (or maintenance of change). Motivation to change, on the other hand, can be considered a broader construct, reflecting a number of factors that combine to indicate the likelihood that someone will begin (continue) to engage in behavior associated with cannabis use reduction (eg, including therapy, self-initiated quit attempts, or other behavior in support of reduced use) (Carey, Purnine, Maisto, Carey & Barnes 1999b). Readiness to change, therefore includes motivation for change as well as other factors, Relevant behavioral skills and barriers may be presumed to affect motivation, through various paths e.g, a patient may be more likely to engage in change related behaviors if he/she willing to change and if he/she has acquired the skills that make success more likely and he/she receives support and reinforcement from change efforts, a person with low motivation and few resources may first benefit from a motivational intervention, followed by skills training (Carrol,1998).
It is estimated that approximately one in six problem cannabis user accesses treatment each year (United Nation on Drug and Crime, 2014). However there are large regional disparities, with approximately 1 to 8 problem drug users receiving treatment in African (primarily for cannabis use), compared to one in five problem drug users receiving treatment in western and central Europe, one in four in Oceania and one in three in north America, (United Nations on Drugs and Crime, 2014).
The present study seeks to examine the contribution of role of parenting style and family support in readiness to change cannabis use among young adults. Within the field of addictive behaviors, a growing number of studies have assessed efficacy of parenting style based on interventions for problematic substance use (Chiesa & Serretti, 2013). Neurobiological mechanisms in areas associated with craving, negative effect, and substance use relapse may be affected by parenting style of training (Witkiewits, Lustyk, & Bowen, 2012) altering basic neurological process related to reactive behaviors (Brewer, Elwafi & Davis, 2012).
Parenting style is a psychological construct representing standard strategies that parents use in their child rearing. The quality of parenting can be more essential than the quantity of time spent with the child. For instance, a parent can spend an entire afternoon with his or her child, yet the parent may be engaging in a different activity and not demonstrating enough interest towards the child. Parenting styles are the representation of how parents respond to and make demands on their children. Parenting practices are specific behaviors, while parenting styles represent broader patterns of parenting practices.
Darling and Steinberg (1993) in Spera (2005)suggest that it is important to better understand the differences between parenting styles and parenting practices: “Parenting practices are defined as specific behaviors that parents use to socialize their children”, while parenting style is “the emotional climate in which parents raise their children”.
Baumrind (1967) considered four basic elements that could help shape successful parenting: responsiveness vs. unresponsiveness and demanding vs. undemanding. Parental responsiveness refers to the degree to which the parent responds to the child’s needs in a supportive and accepting manner. Baumrind identified three parenting styles: Authoritative parenting, authoritarian parenting and permissive parenting. Baumrid (1996) described three styles as follow:
The Permissive Parent: attempts to behave in a non-punitive, acceptant and affirmative manner towards the child’s impulses, desires, and actions (e.g. poor emotion regulation etc.). The parent is responsive but not demanding. Children of permissive parents may tend to be more impulsive and as adolescents may engage more in misconduct such as cannabis use (Osorio, Alfonso, González-Cámara and Marta, 2015).
The Authoritarian Parent: attempts to shape control and evaluate the behavior and attitudes of the child in accordance with a set standard of conduct, usually an absolute standard, theologically motivated, and formulated by a higher authority, the parent values obedience as a virtue and favors punitive, forceful measures to curb self-well at points where the child’s actions or belief conflict with what she think is right conduct (Anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy disposition etc). The parent is demanding but not responsive. Children raised by authoritarian parents tend to be conformist, highly obedient, quiet, and not very happy, these children often suffer from depression and self-blame.
The Authoritative Parent: attempts to direct the child’s activities but in a rational, issue oriented manner. The parent is demanding and responsive.Authoritative parents will set clear standards for their children, monitor the limits that they set, and also allow children to develop autonomy. They also expect mature, independent, and age-appropriate behavior of children. Punishments for misbehavior are measured and consistent, not arbitrary or violent (1996:889).
1.2 Statement of Problem
Cannabis use in Nigerian Society has become an issue of serious concern and constitutes one of the most important risks taking behavior among young adult. According to Boryelt, Franson, Nassbaum and Wang (2013), safety concerns regarding cannabis use include the increased risk of developing schizophrenia with adolescent use, impairment in memory and cognition, accident pediatric ingestions and lack of safety packaging for medical cannabis formulations. The same thing implies Gordon and Conley (2013) report that exposure to cannabis have biologically-based physical, mental, behavior and social health consequences and was associated with diseases of the liver (particularly with co-existing hepatitis C), lungs, heart and vasculature.
In the area covered by the present study- Enugu metropolis, there are many cannabis users almost in all the layouts, streets and suburbs irrespective of the continual outlook of the law enforcement agencies National Drug Law Enforcement Agencies (Police and NDLEA) for them. Almost everybody within places like Abakpa, Emene, Obiagu, Thinkers’ Corner, Ugwuaji fly-over axis, Monarch, Achalla Layout, New Haven Extension/Old Artisan, ESUT axis of Independent Layout and many other places have either a personal or learned story to tell about the menace of cannabis (“igbo”) users.
The series of problems associated with the use of cannabis have raised serious concern for awareness and treatment. Notwithstanding the worldwide concern and education about cannabis uses (the effects to both the person and the society at large), many users have limited awareness of their abuses’ consequences (Eneh, 2004) and very few of the users assess treatment or develop the willingness to assess treatment. This raises research concern for the evaluation of social factors that can influence young adults’ readiness to change from the use of cannabis and hence the drive of the present study. There is need to see the position of the behaviors of authority figures in the home (parents) and the support perceived to come from all the component members of the home in pushing or motivating young adults to engage in the change process from the use of cannabis.
Specifically, the present study intends to address the following problems.
Would role of parenting style significantly influence readiness to change cannabis use among young adults?
Would family support significantly influence readiness to change cannabis use among young adults?
1.3 Purpose of the Study
Examine whether parenting style (authoritative, authoritarian and permissive) of the father will influence readiness to change cannabis use among young adults.
Examine whether parenting style (authoritative, authoritarian and permissive) of the mother will influence readiness to change cannabis use among young adults.
Examine whether level of family support will influence readiness to change cannabis use among young adults.
1.4 Operational Definitions Of Terms.
Parenting Style: parenting style represent the overall climate of parent child interactions or standard strategies that parents use in their child rearing measured using the Parental Authority Questionnaire by Buri (1991) which was developed in line with the Baumrind’s three dimension of parenting: authoritativeness, authoritarianism and permissiveness.
Family Support: Family support is the extent to which individual perceives that his/her needs for support, information and feedback are fulfilled by family members measured using the the Perceived Social Support Scale-Family (PSS-Fr) adapted from the Perceived Social Support Scale by Procidano and Heller (1983).
Readiness to Change Cannabis Use: This is an individual’s personal feelings about his/her cannabis use at the present time which identifies him/her in either of the Pre-contemplation, Contemplation and Action decision level of whether or not he/she wish to change his cannabis use behavior. This is measured using the 12-item Readiness to Change Questionnaire (RCQ) by Heather and Rollnick (1993).
The IMPACT OF PARENT CHILD RELATIONSHIP AND PARENTING STYLES ON ACADEMIC ENGAGEMENT OF ADOLESCENCE
ABSTRACT
This study examined impact parent-child relationship (warmth) and parenting styles on academic engagement among adolescence in Enugu East local government area of Enugu state using 475 participants from four randomly selected secondary schools in Enugu East local government of Enugu state (2 single sex schools- St. Patrick College, Emene and Trans-Ekulu Girls Secondary School; and 2 mixed sex schools- Model Ideal College Abakpa and Godfrey Okoye Secondary School, Thinkers’ Corner). A total of one hundred and fifty (150) copies of the instrument were administered to systematically randomly selected SS 1 & 2 students of each of the four schools the participants (191 Males and 284 Females) were aged between 13 years and 21 years with a mean age of 15.93 years and a standard deviation of 1.22. Parenting Style Inventory II (PSI-II); Parental Warmth Scale and Student Engagement Scale (SES) were used to collect data for the study. Multiple Regression analysis was used to test the hypotheses via the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS v23).The result of this study does not support the null hypothesis since parent-child relationship (warmth) made a statistically significant positive contribution in predicting academic engagement .The result of this study support the null hypothesis because responsiveness did not make statistically significant contribution in predicting academic engagement. The result of this study support the null hypothesis for the reason that autonomy did not make statistically significant contribution in predicting academic engagement .The result of this study does not support the null hypothesis since demandingness made a statistically significant positive contribution in predicting academic engagement. Among the three dimensions of parenting styles, only demandingness made a statistically significant positive contribution in predicting academic engagement.
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
The Adolescence is a fascinating stage of development full of many physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes. To Blackwell, Trzesniewski, Kali and Dweck (2007), this stage or period is sensitive and a critical time with important implications for school achievement. Also, the increase in academic demands and the complexity of the school structure make the task of academic success for adolescents even more difficult (Patrikakou, 2004).
Achievement is almost the most important issue for adolescents in education in any country and this is why many key people ranging from educators to psychologists and to sociologists have focused research attention and efforts towards identifying the reasons why some students perform well academically while others fail and drop out. Recently, nations such as Canada, has noted an increase in children with risk factors that may compromise their present achievement and future success, and approximately 27.6% or 1 in 4 students is considered to be at risk for school failure (Jordan, 2006). Belfield (2007) also found out that across the 21.9 million adults in California, 2.19 million males and 1.96 million females (20% of the students) were dropouts. Ghasemi (2010) in a study found that 22% of the students in Iran suffer from low academic achievement due to family problems and personal factors.
Besides factors such as parental, school, teacher and environmental factors; personal factors such as self-efficacy, engagement in academic work and personality also have significant positive relationships with adolescent’s academic achievement (Multon, Brown, & Lent, 1991; Fredrik, Blumenfield, & Paris, 2004). Among these personal factors is the main variable of consideration in this study which is academic engagement which is really emphatic among the contributing personal factors to academic achievement and personal development of adolescent students in schools. Such engagement can be described as the level of commitment and involvement or the amount of time, energy and effort that students put into their educational learning activities (Stewart, 2007).
Researchers have recently used the term engagement to refer to the extent to which students identifywith and value schooling outcomes, and participate in academic and non-academic school activities (Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD), 2003). The definition of engagement usually comprises a psychological component pertaining to students’ sense of belonging at school and acceptance of school values, and a behavioural component pertaining to participation in school activities (Finn, 1993; Finn & Rock, 1997; Goodenow, 1993; Goodenow & Grady, 1993; Wehlage, Rutter, Smith, Lesko, & Fernandez, 1989). The psychological component emphasizes students’ sense of belonging or attachment to school, which has to do with feelings of being accepted and valued by their peers, and by others at their school (OECD, 2003). Another aspect of the psychological component concerns whether or not students value school success – whether they believe that education will benefit them personally and economically (Johnson et al., 2001). Students who do not feel they belong at school, or reject school values, are often referred to as alienated or disaffected. The participation component of engagement is characterised by factors such as school and class attendance, being prepared for class, completing homework, attending lessons, and being involved in extra-curricular sports or hobby clubs (OECD, 2003).
Academic engagement in the words of Willms (2003) entail investing quality time and energy by students in educationally purposeful activities and being persistent in the pursuitof academic success; it is an indicator that combine academic identification (getting along with teachers, having an interest in the subject matter and related behaviours and attitudes) and academic participation (students work effort both inside and outside of school including hours spent on homework, meeting deadlines and not skipping classes). Taylor & Lundy (2016) refers to academic engagement as the degree of attention, curiosity, interest, optimism and passion that students show when they are learning or being taught, which extends to their level of motivation and progress in education.Svanum and Biggatti (2009) points out that a student is academically engaged when the said student takes advantage of learning opportunities provided by their institution both inside and outside the classroom and involves course related activities such as class attendance and completion of assignment. In line with the foregoing, Horstmanshoff and Zimitat (2011)defined academic engagement in terms of university students as a measure of student’s involvement with university studies.
Academic engagement involves cognitive functions and self-regulatory strategies to pursue learning task (Butler, 2011); therefore, it involves all actions students undertake to enhance their learning. It emphasizes students various pattern of motivation, cognition and behaviour (Baron &Corbin, 2012). It is therefore, a behavioral, emotional and attitudinal involvement in learning and is concerned with concentration, effort and persistency in academic related activities.
Academic engagement improves students’ inquisitiveness, level of motivation and consequently progress in academic endeavors, (Stephens, 2015) and to a great extent may determineoutcomes such as graduation. It aims at increasing successful student achievement levels and in understanding students’ positive development (Appleton, Christenson & furlong, 2008). Hence, it has grown in popularity recently probably as a result of increased understanding of the role it plays in learning process and social development (Fredrick et al, 2004). The concept typically arises when educators discuss educational strategies and teaching techniques that address developmental, intellectual, emotional, behavioural, physical and social factors that either enhance or undermine learning for students (Parsons, 2011).Educators may hold different views on students’ academic engagement for instance, observable behaviours such as attending class, listening attentively, participating in discussions, turning in work on time and following rules and directions may be perceived as forms of academic engagement by some educators while others relate academic engagement to internal states such as enthusiasm, motivation or interest.
Academic engagement is predicated on the belief that learning improves when students are inquisitive, interested or inspired and that learning tends to suffer when students are bored, dispassionate or otherwise “disengaged”, (Fredrick et al, 2004). Hence, it seems to play positively significant role in undergraduates’ ability to benefit from academic experiences and consequently achieve academic success. Among identified factors that are related to academic engagement are gender, race/ethnicity, students’ major, parental involvement, educational institution and contact with different people (Jonson, Crosnoe & Elder 2001; Taylor & Francis 2010; Pasquae & Murphy 2005).
The present study examined the impactof parent-child relationship and parenting style on academic engagement of adolescents in Enugu east local government of Enugu state. Research have shown that children of involved parents who participate in their children’s education, have higher standardized test scores and more academic aspirations (Bondioli, 2000; Hill, Castellino, Lansford, Nowlin, Dodge, Bates, & Pettit, 2004).
Consequent upon the large body of work demonstrating a connection between parenting practices/styles and school achievement, studies are accumulating which suggest that one pathway through which parenting has an impact on children’s school performance is by shaping children’s classroom engagement, intrinsic motivation, preference for challenge, valuing and commitment to school, and enthusiasm, enjoyment, and interest in schoolwork (Epstein & Sanders, 2002; Jeynes, 2007; Pomerantz, Grolnick, & Price, 2005).
Darling & Steinberg (1993) define parenting style as “a constellation of attitudes toward the child that are communicated to the child and that, taken together, create an emotional climate in which the parents’ behaviors are expressed”. One of the most studied approaches to understanding parental influences on human development is concept of parenting style (Baumrind, 1967). Baumrind proposed parenting styles as correlates to socialization of the children (Shyny, 2017). Afterwards, many researches recognized the importance of researching role of parenting style in child development (Kordi, 2010; Schaffer, Clark & Jeglic, 2009; Lim & Lim, 2003). Many of the studies followed three parenting styles originally proposed by Baumrind namely authoritative parenting, authoritarian parenting and permissive parenting, though in 1971, Baumrind added negligent parenting (Shyny, 2017). Baumrind grouped parents to three (or four) parenting styles according to their child rearing patterns, on the basis of her interviews with parents and children.
Shyny (2017) opined that “there is a growing interest in the role of parenting in a person’s affective and social characteristics. The attention of educational researchers on the parenting styles and their effects on school relevant developmental outcomes are also on the rise. Several studies found that parenting style or parental behaviour has statistically significant relation with developmental outcomes like performance, achievement strategies, self-regulated learning, achievement goals, self-efficacy and wellbeing of students”. Academic or school engagement no doubt fall as component part of these factors, hence, a connection of parenting styles and students’ academic/school engagement.
Furrer and Skinner (2003) have in the past examined sense of relatedness (i.e., patterns of relationships with certain social partners such as parents, peers etc.) for its role in student engagement and subsequent academic performance. In this study, they specifically examined the following relationships: (a) the association between relatedness and classroom engagement and performance; (b) the role of parents, teachers, and peers on engagement; (c) the influence of age and gender on the relation between relatedness and engagement; and (d) the level of engagement associated with different relatedness profiles (i.e., patterns of relationships with certain social partners). Results suggested that student- and teacher-reported levels of student behavioral and emotional engagement each mediated the relationship between aggregated relatedness (across parents, teachers, and peers) and student grades. Moreover, student-reported relatedness to parents, peers, and teachers significantly predicted both student- and teacher-reported student engagement beyond student-reported perceived control at one point in time and also across the school year from fall to spring (Furrer & Skinner, 2003). Student feelings of relatedness overlapped moderately across partners (parents, peers, and teachers), yet relatedness with each partner was uniquely important in predicting engagement.
MacDonald (1992) considers warmth as a main component of an adaptive parent-child relationship, and refers to emotional nurturance and affectionate care giving expressed from a parental figure to the child. MacDonald also concluded that warmth and affection in the family evolved as an independent system of motivation, which was distinct from the process of attachment that prevents harm or loss. Thus rather than simply a behavioural contingency system at play, warmth, then, provides positive social reward that drives parent and child behaviour over the course of their relationship (MacDonald, 1992).
Statement of Problem
According to OECD(2003), school is central to the daily life of many youths in that they view schooling as essential to their long-term wellbeing, and this attitude is reflected in their participation in academic and non-academic pursuits; and they tend to have good relations with school staff and with other students – they feel that they belong at school. However, some youths do not share this sense of belonging, and do not believe that academicsuccess will have a strong bearing on their future. These feelings and attitudes may result in their becomingdisaffected from school (Finn, 1989; Jenkins, 1995). They may gradually withdraw from school activities,and in some cases participate in disruptive behaviour and display negative attitudes towards teachers andother students (OECD, 2003). These students who have become disaffected from school tend to create one of the biggestchallenges for teachers and school administrators as they try to meet their need to be fully engaged in school.
Despite the highimportance of students’ academic engagement as one of the key factors that determine academic achievement and the problem disengagement in school create for the student, the school and society at large, some students are still found in lapse engaging academically. Academic engagement has long been found as a critical factor in shaping college outcomes (Gasiewski, 2012). Despite the need, findings still indicates that students find it difficult to engage academically (Trawler 2010; Perkmann 2013). This problem of students’ difficulty engaging academically makes research on factors influencing academic engagement to remain an important research question.
Studies have been carried out to determine factors that influence academic engagement, (Jonson, Crosnoe & Elder 2001; Talor & Francis 2010; Pasquae & Murphy 2005; Granville & Dika, 2002; Fredricks & Blumenfeld, 2004) but not much of these studies have been done to see the impact of parent-child relationship and styles of parenting. Also, enough has not been done in Nigeria especially in the south-east in regards to this context, hence a gap in knowledge. This study therefore, will seek to fill some gap in knowledge by examining the impact of parent-child relationship and parenting style on academic engagement of adolescent students in secondary schools in Enugu East Local Government.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of parent-child relationship and parenting style on academic engagement of adolescent students in secondary schools in Enugu East local government. Specifically, the study would seek to determine whether:
1. Parent-child relationship would have impact on academic engagement of adolescent students in secondary schools in Enugu East Local Government.
2. Responsiveness parenting styles would have impact on academic engagement of adolescent students in secondary schools in Enugu East Local Government.
3. Autonomy granting parenting styles would have impact on academic engagement of adolescent students in secondary schools in Enugu East Local Government.
4. Demandingness parenting styles would have impact on academic engagement of adolescent students in secondary schools in Enugu East Local Government.
Operational Definition of Key Variables Academic Engagement: Students’ investment in and commitment to learning, belonging and identification at school, and participation in the institution environment and initiation of activities to achieve educational goals as measured using the 31 item Student Engagement Scale (SES) byDoğan (2014). Parent-Child Relationship: The unique and enduring bond between a parent or caregiver and his or her child measured using the Parental Warmth Scale from Child Parental Acceptance-Rejection/Control Questionnaire (PARQ/Control; Rohner & Khaleque, 2005). The mean warmth received by each participant from both parents represents his/her parental warmth score. Parenting Style: This is a collection of attitudes towards the child that are communicated to the child and that, taken together, create an emotional climate in which the parents’ behaviors are expressed. Parenting style in this study is measured using Parenting Style Inventory II (PSI-II) by Darling and Toyokawa (1997) based on the three parenting style dimension of demandingness, responsiveness and autonomy granting. The mean score for each of the three dimensions from both parents represents each participant’s parenting style score.
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The topic of the research was Influence of School Environment on the Academic Performance of Pupils in Public Primary School in Kaduna South. The purpose was to find out influence of the school environment on the academic performance pupils in public primary school pupils in Kaduna South. the target population of the study will comprise the teachers, students and on-teaching staff. The target population was 3,000 respondents. The researcher used simple random sampling method to select the total of (500) respondents from the above school, which comprises the academic staff, non-academic staff and students. The researcher selected (100) one hundred respondents from each school, making a total of 500 respondents from the five schools selected. The researcher used questionnaire to collect data from the respondents. The researcher used simple percentage to analyze the data collected. The instrument for data collection was questionnaire. The findings included the following: that the school environment has power to influence the quality of academic performance of the pupils, secondly, that good school environment gives opportunity to pupils to learn effectively. The researcher recommended that owners of schools should make their school environment conducive to enhance proper teaching and learning. secondly, owners of schools should spend adequate money on the development of school environment like library to attract attention to the pupils.
ACCESSIBILITY AND USE OF INTERNET AS A SOURCE OF INFORMATION FOR ACADEMIC WORKS BY PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS
ABSTRACT
This study investigated accessibility use of internet as a source of information for academic work by public school teachers in Ekpoma, Edo State, Nigeria. Descriptive survey design was adopted and purposive sampling was used to select a sample of 169 respondents, questionnaire was the main instrument used for data collection. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, consisting of tables, percentages and mean statistics. The main findings revealed that public school teachers do not have internet facilities in their schools and they access the internet through their personal computers, smart phones and cyber café. Findings also revealed that public school teachers consult the internet to form lesson note, do academic research/personal research, get news and information, communicate via email and social media. They also agreed that internet services have impact on them through access to information anytime and anywhere, to increase the opportunity for scholarly communication with colleagues as well as improve their lesson note. Lack of internet services/connectivity in the school, poor electricity supply, poor funding of school library services (internet services) were the major challenges the respondents faced when using internet services and facilities. The study recommended the public school managements should provide adequate internet facilities in public schools and also make them accessible to public school teachers.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
The convergence of computer and telecommunication has revolutionized information management in the present day information environment. One of the products of this myriad of convergence is the birth of the Internet. In the process of trying to make information available to information seekers and users in the past few years, Internet has become the major source of information. This is so, considering the strategic importance of Internet in information retrieval. The world over have been availed the opportunity of Internet in the enhancement of knowledge and research. The invention of the Internet and on-line information search engines, among others have made this possible. Yusuf (2005) assert that the field of education has been affected by internet access, which has undoubtedly affected teaching, learning, and research. Education is a fundamental human process; a matter of values and action. The cluster of technologies called the “Internet” has the ability to complement, reinforce, and to enhance the educational process.
The internet is a vast global network that links millions of computers ranging from the smallest handheld personal mobile digital assistants to the most powerful computer systems ever constructed. The power of the internet is that it allows a worldwide community comprising millions of people to communicate, access, and publish information. People are using the internet to gain access to libraries throughout the world, aid in research projects and cross-cultural studies, solve school assignments, and enhance foreign language skills, and simply exchange ideas and studies with their peers. The internet has become a global cultural phenomenon; tens of millions of people have access to the system. It is of the same magnitude as television was in its early years and is the most powerful current trend for societal change. According to Dowlin (2001), opines that “participation in the internet collapses geography and time”. The cost is independent of distance and the information is accessed in real or virtual time with little delay. However, Internet is not self dependent but a network itself. One needs computer or an enabled mobile phone to access the information and other multimedia resources through the internet. Therefore, because of the countless benefits from using the internet especially the educational value, schools now acquire computer systems with telecommunication tools to have access to the internet.
The Internet can be used to source information or for research by browsing the World Wide Web (www) using the Uniform resource locator (URL) to access databases provided electronically by information providers. E-mails can be sent and received; chats and discussion can be conducted in addition to the transaction of e-commerce. In line with this, Anyokoha,(2005) assert that the internet which is usually called information superhighway is simply the interconnectivity of computers that provide a wide range of information in all facets of human endeavors to end-users. Teachers need Internet because of its flexibility and dynamism in information retrieval, storage and processing. Internet is very important to public school teachers because they need to have access to timely, accurate and relevant information for their teaching and research.
Internet sources like the search engines have greatly increased the speed of searching out information. They have brought considerable relief to teachers in secondary school, as they can conveniently walk and browse lessons and discussion and have access to unlimited information. According to Ejizu (2010), the Internet is a global network made up of many smaller networks that enable computer users to share information and resources quickly and easily. The above definition implies that the Internet is a connection of millions of computers around the globe such that one of the connected computers could have access to any information stored in these computers within the global village. One may also describe the Internet as a tool that connects various types of computers to one another in a way that a computer on the Internet can communicate and share information with other computers in the network of networks, even though there may be no direct physical connection between them.
The Internet is very useful to public school teachers’ especially in Nigeria because it enables them to have access to timely, accurate and relevant information that can be used for their lesson According Owolabi (2007) maintains that the Internet has become the market place for learning and online education. Contributing to this, Ojedokun (2001) points out that the Internet has broken down barriers of communication and information access from any part of the World and that it allows users to have access to information and offers them opportunity to access up-to-date research. Due to the endless nature of information resources on the Internet, schools and libraries are increasingly investing in provision of Internet services and resources to enable their clients have better access to their information.
Furthermore, with the current interest in creating a society of lifelong learners, it is evident that public school teachers (that is, those persons who provide education for pupils) must be able to find, evaluate, and use information that is constantly changing. According to Berkowitz (2002) reports that information and technology skills are the ‘new basics’ and being able to find and use information more effectively is essential to the success of teachers in public school. The Internet brought about a free flow of information all over the globe. One could possibly get access to any kind of information on almost everything. There have been several important observations on the changes in the way information is accessed since the advent of the Internet. Information on the other hand can be defined as facts, ideas, signs, symbols, pictures and processed data which when received and understood can improve the knowledge state of the receiver in a given situation or phenomenon. The fact is that for information to be useful it must be accessible.
Accessibility is a key aspect of usage and can be refers to the ability to use a product or service effectively. In the internet parlance, internet access is the process that enables individuals to connect to the internet using computers and mobile device. Hicks (2002), concludes that the Internet is a double-edged sword, as students can use it to access any educational database, learn about any country, they can also be subjected to perverse and deviant topics. Once connected user gain access to information. The use of the internet entails the process of utilizing the information resource on the internet. In line with this, Oketunji (2001) asserts that Internet gives us access to a vast wealth of knowledge and access to tools that facilitate research. The Internet offers the opportunity to conduct remote classes, allow access to remote libraries, and create an environment innovative and cooperative learning experiences. Internet has become an important and reliable tool for information retrieval. Once connected to the internet, it is possible to access a wide range of services from around the world. This is so as the advent of internet, teachers and students can work together without physical interaction between each other and achieve the same objectives with that of traditional way of studying. Teachers exchange ideas and communicate effectively since teaching, learning and research is now made easy with the internet.
It is pertinent to note that effective teaching is essential for effective learning. The process of teaching has become more complex of late such that computer and internet literacy play significant roles in education. According to Schneider, Evans and Pinard, (2006) opines that in Today world, the Internet can link all online computers so that people can use it to communicate throughout the world. Due to internet illiteracy of some teachers because of the educational level still pride themselves as being internet literate, the fact still remains that some are yet to acclimatize with the internet. In this context the study focused on finding the access and use of internet as a source of information for academic works by public school teachers.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
It has been observed in this contemporary information age that the Internet has increasingly become an invaluable asset in education in terms of learning, teaching and research. Its role in information handling, packaging, storing, retrieving and dissemination is at the root of any meaningful academic enterprise all over the world. The Internet is now prominent in making information and data available to researchers. However, Due to internet illiteracy of some teachers and because of their educational background/level still pride themselves as being internet literate, the fact still remains that some are yet to acclimatize with the internet, In line with this, Kilimci Songül (2010), assert that teachers might find it difficult to use ICT in their classrooms due to the rapid technological development and lack of knowledge/experience of and familiarity with ICT. It is quite regrettable that despite the numerous advantages of internet, most teachers do not know how to search or to get the right information in the course of their academic work. Most often, even to synthesize and analyze the information becomes a nightmare to some teachers. The inability of teachers to overcome these problems automatically makes it impossible to explore the potentials of the Internet. Hence, it becomes imperatives to find out the accessibility and use of Internet as source of information for academic works by public school teachers in Esan-west local Government, Ekpoma, Edo state.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The major objective of this study is the accessibility and use of internet as a source of information for academic works by public school teachers in Ekpoma, Edo State.
The specific objectives for the study are to:
Find out if Public school teachers have access to the internet.
Determine the extent of Internet use by Public school teachers.
Investigate the purpose of using of Internet by Public school teachers for their academic work.
Find out the impact of internet use on public school teachers.
Find out the challenges encountered by public school teachers when using the Internet services for their academic work.
1.4 Research Questions
The following are the research questions which will be address in the study;
How often do public school teachers access the internet to support their academic work?
To what extent do Public school teachers use the Internet?
What is the purpose of using Internet by Public school teachers?
What is the impact of internet use by public school teachers?
What are the challenges encountered using the Internet by Public school teachers for their academic work?
1.5 Scope of Study
This study will be limited to investigating internet as source of information for academic work by public school teachers in ten selected public schools in Ekpoma, Edo state.
1.6 Significant of the Study
This study is expected to enlighten and broaden the knowledge of public school teachers on how effective of using internet as a source of information and incorporating the findings into the teaching process.
The study will also be helpful to school administration, government agencies, ministry of education and policy makers as it will enable them to realize the use of Internet in education and thus work towards reflecting it in their educational policies and programs. Also, it will serve as a framework and guideline to them in establishing effective Internet network and maintain the existing ones to enable the teachers have easily access to the Internet.
Finally, the study will help future researchers’ study as it will go a long way in making them realize the need for further studies in this area and will form a bedrock for further studies. Also this study will add to the existing literature in the field and also serve as a guide for researcher who wishes to carry out further research in related areas.
1.7 Limitation of Study
It is pertinent to say no research is perfect. Although conscious efforts have been made to ensure that the data collected was valid and findings reliable. Nevertheless, there could be some sources of errors prior to financial and time constraint, and also the literature and tools used in carrying out this research work was not easy to come by.
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms
The under- listed terms are used in the research work in the sense, in which they are defined here under;
Internet: a network of linked computers which are located at different point all over the world to provide easy communication between persons and organizations no matter where they are located.
Internet use: the utilization of the internet.
Web: a form of a multimedia system of sound, pictures, files, videos for finding information in the internet.
Public school: a school supported by public funds.
Teacher: a person who provides education for pupils or students. They teach specific area of study.
Information: data, presented in readily comprehensible form to which meaning has been attributed within a context for it uses.
Accessibility: the ability to have or access something in order to use it for one self.
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ROLE OF PARENTING STYLE AND FAMILY SUPPORT IN READINESS TO CHANGE CANNABIS USE AMONG YOUNG ADULTS
