Tag Archives: Impact

The Challenges of Journalism Practice in Nigeria

THE CHALLENGES OF JOURNALISM PRACTICE IN NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

This research exercise is on the challenges of journalism practice in Nigeria (A study of Nigerian Television Authority, Enugu). The research study adopted the systems theory and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory as the theoretical framework for this study. The research population comprised 89 staff workers and the research study adopted the number as the sample size for the study. The questionnaire served as instrument of data collection. The data collected was analyzed using simple percentage method. The research work made some of the following findings; that too much of government control, shortage of staff, lack of modern /adequate equipment, poor salary, inadequate funding and employment of non-professionals are among the major challenges affecting the media in carrying out their duties. It was recommended that; journalists working in state government owned media station should realize that they are serving the public and not the state chief executives alone and so must pay adequate attention to social responsibility principle of the press.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Journalism in Nigeria has continued to grow immensely in line with global trends despite strong infrastructural challenges. Communicating with a mass audience is not totally strange in Nigeria. Thus, mass media have been important tools in communication, and through which information is passed across within the society (Ben, 2016).

In mass communication, the media are divided into the electronic (broadcast) and print media. The print media involves mainly magazine and newspaper; they are informers which provide retrievable, researched, in-depth and interpretative news stories of events. The broadcast media comprise of the radio and television, it has not been as enterprising as it should be. This is due to the majority ownership and control of the broadcast media by the government. These two branches of the media has played vital role in broadcasting of information in the society. 

Abdur-Rahman (2013) in describing the media roles noted that broadcast is a society wide type of message dissemination, which involves the transmission of ideas, words, sounds, pictures and values in the form of signals through the airwaves to a target audience. Ben (2016) opined that broadcasting is an activity of a branch of the media of mass communication called the electronic media that use transmitters and airwaves in the transmission of news and information to their heterogeneous audience.

According to Munyua (2010), information is the least expensive impute for societal development and it can also be viewed as a basic necessity ingredient for bringing about social and economic change in any nation. On this fact, Santas and Ogoshi (2015) stated that the mass media play crucial roles in achieving developmental objectives at local, national and international level. The further noted that the mass media has been recognized as an important resource for mobilizing an entire nation towards national development. Being an integral part of the social system, the mass media is a major stakeholder in the realization of sustainable development in Nigeria. Thus, in the process of information dissemination the media prepares the ground for development.

However, there are several factors hindering the effectiveness of the media in information dissemination. Santas and Ogoshi (2015) opined that factors like corruption, poor communication channels, illiteracy, inadequate infrastructure, poor implementation framework and political instability has continued to pose great challenges to the achievement of sustainable development of Nigeria media. Otolo (2015) also highlighted that ownership is one of the major problems facing the media in Nigeria, be it State or Federal. In most cases, there is a stigma on journalists who work in these media houses as they are often seen as government’s propagandists. Journalists are made to give the activities of their government owner more prominence at the expense of other important issues. When they fail to do so, regardless of their role or importance to the media organization, the reporters risk being sacked or demoted unless they are lucky.

According to Udeajah (2014), everything points to the fact that ownership has had some significant effect on the operations of broadcast organizations in Nigeria. The policy of the persons who pay the broadcaster’s salary determines the operation of the media station. Ben (2016) observed that the government owned media houses in Nigeria have been known to suffer a myriad of problems which have left them redundant and reduced them to mere “government handouts”. This is as a result of the overbearing influence of the government owners on the media houses. Barnabas (2017) stated that due to the government control of the electronic media, they lack credibility and objectivity. This can be accounted in the caliber of workers they parade. He further noted that the media is heavily being affected by poorly educated editor and reporters who are easily target for manipulation by the government and its agents.

In the same vein, it is important to note that beyond the control from the government as posing as one of the challenges affecting the media in disseminating information, the new media idea poses a great challenge to most media houses in Nigeria. The new media rely strongly on digitally powered technologies, allowing for previously separate media to converge. Media convergence is a phenomenon of new media and this can be explained as a digital media. According to Flew, (2012), “The idea of new media captures both the development of unique forms of digital media, and the remaking of more traditional media forms to adopt and adapt to the new media technologies”. This obviously accounts for the reliance on computers, smart phones, tablets, and other medium instead of the previous analogue means of information gathering. The most prominent example of media convergence is the Internet, whereby the technology for the streaming of video and audio has now changed the face of broadcasting and movies rapidly.

According to Barnabas (2017) a challenge in using the new media in public service is the fact that new media technologies are very expensive. This is a major limitation to the use of the new media technologies as advertising channels in digital television as it increases the cost of producing and running commercials. Daniel, Ezekiel, and Leo (2013) noted that countries like Nigeria have low level of technology penetration including new media technologies and lack of availability of these the basic postulates of these technologies. This has made the use of new media technologies to move on a slow pace. Just to highlight these few as being part of the challenges hindering the media in playing their role effectively. Hence, this research study aimed in examining the challenges of journalism practice in Nigeria with focus on Nigerian Television Authority, Enugu.

1.2     Statement of Problem

The media is regarded as the fourth estate of the realm, this can be said to be the role, bestowed on the media by nature. They are endued with the responsibility to inform and educate the public on the happenings in the society. Despite the essential roles play by the media in ensuring that there is free flow of information within the society, there are still some problems affecting them in carrying out these roles.

One of such problem is the freedom of information. All over the world, press freedom has always been a controversial issue, Africa is not an exception especially in Nigeria where there are often arrest or detention of journalists or media workers by security operatives. It is has gotten to the extent that journalists are often assassinated and there are no proper investigation to carry out for such incidence.

Nigeria media houses often complain about the epidemic power supply and inability of government of the day to address the issue have affected the media in disseminating information. Also, it is wise to note that to cover news periodically at anywhere and at anytime requires sophisticated equipments, which are new media technologies. These new media technologies are expensive to afford and this have made most media houses not to go total digital because they cannot afford to purchase new technologies.

Also, government control over the media is one of the problems affecting the credibility of the media in disseminating information freely in the society. Oloruntola (2009) noted that government control over the media hinders factual, accurate, balance and fair reporting of the media houses, especially those owned by the government. These problems mentioned above could be trace to be responsible for limiting the media from disseminating information freely.

1.3     Objective of the Study

The main objective of this study was to examine the challenges of journalism practice in Nigeria. Other specific objectives include to:

  1. Identify the challenges militating against the media in disseminating information.
  2. Ascertain the influence of these media challenges on the practice of journalism profession in Nigeria.
  3. Find out the influence of government control on the activities of the media in Nigeria.

1.4     Research Questions

This study was guided by the following research question:

  1. What is the challenges militating against the media in disseminating information?
  2. What is the influence of these media challenges on the practice of journalism profession in Nigeria?
  3. What is the influence of government control on the activities of the media in Nigeria?

1.5     Scope of the Study

This work will concentrate on the entire activities of Nigeria Television Authority Enugu, Enugu State.

1.6      Significance of the Study

This study is significant in the following ways:

  • It would enable the researcher to expand the frontiers of research in digital broadcasting especially with the use of new media technologies, and how to render solution to some of the challenges hindering the media if he later becomes a media practitioner.
  • The findings and recommendation will be helpful to the government and its agents to administer effective control that will enable the media perform their functions effectively.
  • This work will serve as a guideline to enable media practitioners to gradually transform from the present analogue state of broadcasting in Nigeria and embrace a broadcasting environment that is driven by modern Information and Communication Facilities as obtainable in western countries, as it will render solutions to certain problems hindering the media.
  • It would add to the body of academic literatures on journalism in the mass communication department in different institution.
  • Lastly, this work would be beneficial to future researchers who can now readily lay their hands on the result of this work by making use of the research report.

1.7     Operational Definition of Terms

  • Media: conceptual (Wikipedia) Media is the collective communication-outlets or tools that are used to store and deliver information or data.
  • Ownership: Ownership means the complete legal right to control or run a media.
  • Content: is the information and experience directed towards an end user or audience.
  • Media Ownership: is the act of establishing controlling and financing the media outfit either by the government or private individual.
  • Government Media: This refers to government-owned newspapers located in the south-south geo-political zone of Nigeria.
  • Media Practitioners: this refers to a professional journalist who has undergone training and is working with a media organization.
  • Information: the created, stored, processed, retrieved and transmitted set of signals (or symbol)
  • Communication: The process of receiving and transmitting information, ideas and opinions from one person or group of persons to another.
  • Convergence: The merging and blending together of old and new media in terms of form, content and function.
  • Information Technology: A term commonly used to cover the range of technologies relevant to the transfer of information (Knowledge, data, text, drawing, audio recordings, video sequences, etc) in particular to computer, digital electronic, and telecommunication (Cambridge Encyclopedia, 2012)
  • Broadcast: Electronic means by which information is transmitted to a large and heterogeneous audience. The broadcast media include the radio and television stations.
  • New media: Modern Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) used as a channel for the dissemination of information to a heterogeneous audience regardless of time, space and distance e.g. Internet, DVD, mobile phones among others.
  • Old media: These are old media of communication that are essentially one directional like the newspaper, radio, television among others.

 

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PERCEPTION OF STUDENTS ON THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL DEVIANCE ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

PERCEPTION OF STUDENTS ON THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL DEVIANCE ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

ABSTRACT

This study is designed to find out and examine the perception of students on the impact of social deviance on academy performance. A summary method was used for the study. 60 respondents (41 Male and 19 Female) were included in the study and they were student of Kaduna Polytechnic. College of Administrative Studies and Social Science. The first chapter discuses the background of the study, statement of the problem. Objective of the study, research question, significant of the study, scope/limitation of the study, the second chapter deals with literature review, the chapter three deals with method of data collection, the questionnaire is the basic instrument for data collection. The chapter four consists of data presentation and analysis, of the finding which is through the questionnaire. The concluding chapter of the research work which is chapter five, the summary, conclusion and recommendation and advice for further studies as for summary, recommendation will help both the lecturer and the school authority, the parents the government, and the students.

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Deviant behavior is a diverse and multidimensional concept. Usually two types of deviant behavior are distinguished: a) externalizing – marked by behavioral problems such as aggression, opposite behavior, conduct problem behavior, vandalism, robbery, and other kinds that may lead to unlawful acts; and b) internalizing – referring to emotional difficulties, such as anxiety, stress, withdrawal, somatic complaints and depression Achenbach (2000). Not only does deviant behavior have a negative impact on children’s psychosocial adjustment and development, but it may also disturb the school environment and disorganize the flow of educational process McNamara (2001).

Academic performance is defined as student’s progress, understood as the level of learning, comprehension and consolidation of the school curriculum Syngollitou (2003). Academic achievement is influenced by many psychological, family, school, and social factors.

Educational attainment is very important to future opportunities and many students look for much higher educational goals (schineider and Stevenson, 1999). Inequality of chances to achieve educational goals. (Hochchild and Scovronicity, 2003) and the school achievement gap associated with religion, raced ethnicity and gender in Africa society. Students who have high academic achievement are less likely to involve or indulge or engage in delinquent behavior than those who have lower academic achievement (Elliott and Voss, 1974; Henggler, 1989).

Students who have unsuccessful experiences in school are more likely to be involved/dingle in delinquent behavior such as dropping out of school (Voelkets et al., 1999) there are many risk factors for school dropout. These can be categorized into social and academic risk factors. Students at risk for dropout based on academic risk factors are those who often have a history of absenteeism and grade retention, academic trouble, and more general disengagement from school life. School grade are the most reliable predictors for student delinquent behavior focuses on:

  1. Student role performance factors
  2. School environment factors
  3. Family factors and
  4. Peer factors

Student Role Performance (SRP); factor is how well an individual fulfils the role of a student in an education setting. Sex, race, school effort, extra-curricular activities, time spent on homework, deviance disabilities and class preparation are all-important influences on SRP and have been shown to affect test scores.

School Environment Factors; such as school size, school rules and school problems, neighborhood and relationship between teachers and students also influence test scores (Crosnoe, Johnson, and Elder 2004).

Family Factor; One’s family background has also been found to influence student test score. Research has found that socio-economic status, parental involvement, and family size are particularly important family factors (Majorbanks 1996).

Peer Group; Peer influence can also affect student performance. Peer pressure and peer conformity can lead to an individual participating in risk-taking behaviours which have been found to have a negative, indirect effect on test scores (Santor, Messervey and Kusumaker 2000).

Research is still being done to see which comes first, the deviant behavior or low grades. Jessor, Bos, Vanderryn, Costa, et al., (1995) performed a study looking at the risk factors that can affect deviant behavior. When controlling for the demographics of gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status and grade, they found that low GPA is a significant risk factors liked to deviance (P<0.01). This supports the idea that having a low grade point average can be risk factors that leads to problem behavior. In their study of the pathways between self-esteem and academic performance, Liu, Kaplan, and Risser (1992) found that self-esteem had a significant negative impact on deviance, which had an inverse direct effect on motivation.

This is directly tied to academic performance (P<0.05). This deviance has an indirect effect on academic achievement through motivation. Kasen, Cohen, and Brook (1998) found that antisocial behavior, the risk of dropping out, and committing a crime all decline with higher academic achievement. First, a discussion of some of the dysfunctional aspects of deviant behaviour of students in tertiary institutions in Nigeria. These dysfunctional aspects of deviant behaviour can be broken down into four categories:

  • Students and Examination Malpractices

An example of deviant behaviour exhibited by students in tertiary institutions in Nigeria comes in the shape of examination malpractice. Examination malpractice refers to cheating in examinations designed to get unearned marks and pass examinations.

  • Students and Secret Cults

Fear is a powerful psychological energizer; it can also be a great demobilizer. Members of secret cults seem to understand and appreciate the impact of this elementary psychology and do indeed use it to the fullest. An important aspect of this operation, therefore, is to strike fear and terror into the minds of fellow students in order to destabilize and demobilize them. Their victims are thus dehumanized and terrorized to submission.

  • Students and Violence

Violence perpetrated by students in times of students unrest has been a long-standing feature of Nigerian tertiary institutions. A number of reasons can be adduced for students’ resort to violence in pressing their demands. Foremost among them is that there is the thinking among students that ultimatum and violence or threats of it are the only ‘language’ to which the authorities can be compelled to listen.

  • STUDENTS UNREST

Student’s unrest is not a new phenomenon in Nigeria. It began in the 1960s and has remained unabated, with the spate of crises in recent times. It is now more of a yearly phenomenon, a ritual that must be conducted before the end of each academic session. Students’ unrest involves mass rally/ demonstration, boycott of lecturers, barricade of entrances and exists to campus, chanting of war songs, display of placards, confrontation with the police and sometimes destruction of property.

As mentioned earlier, deviant behaviour also has positive values. A look at history confirms this statement. For instance, modem science emerged only when men felt free to question the doctrine of Aristotle and the Church. Socrates challenged the basic beliefs of the Greek society of his time; his particular sin was that he believed that correct action implied correct thought.

This study examines the relationships between deviance and the test scores of Student role performance factor are been seen bellow:

  1. Deviant students achieve lower test scores than non-deviant students net of other factors.
  2. Minority students are more likely to achieve lower test scores net of other factors.
  3. Students who attend extra-curricular activities achieve higher test scores net of other factors.
  4. Students who spend more time on homework are more likely achieve higher test scores net of other factors.
  5. Students who come to class prepared will achieve higher test scores net of other factors.
  6. As school disruptions increase, test scores decreases net of other factors.
  7. As school problems increase, test scores decrease net of other factors.
  8. As SES increases, test scores increase net of other factors.
  9. Students who have fewer numbers of siblings are more likely to receive higher test scores net of other factors.
  10. Students who communicate with their parents more often are more likely to achieve higher test scores net of other factors.

This study showed that those who are deviant do not tend to attain test scores as high as those of students who are non-deviant. The research also showed that within high conflict school setting there is a high proportion of deviant youth (P<0.001).

1.2     STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

This study is to investigate the impact of social deviance on academic performance. Deviance in a sociological context, describes actions or behaviours that violate social norms, including formally-enacted rules (e.g, crime), as well as informal violation of social norms e.g, rejecting folkways and mores.

The failure to conform to the customary norms of a community or society is what is known as social deviance. Social deviance is the violation of the societal or organizational norms, expectations, and values. It is the failure to conform to the conventional ways of doing things in the society or an organization. Social deviances are in different dimension. For example, juvenile delinquency, corruption, drug abuse, alcoholism, prostitutions, immorality, crime, dressing code and exams malpractice etc. these deviant behaviours manifestation constitute also major social problems on academic performance. Previous research revealed that deviant students will have lower test scores than non-deviant students who. Elliott and Voss (1994) and Henggler (1989) mentions that students who have high academic achievement are less likely to indulge in delinquent behavior than those who have lower academic achievement.

The upsurge of deviant behaviours in the Nigeria society is a matter of concern to all and has engendered research for its not causes. Some people attributed it to nature and the civil war of (1967-1970) which lives and properties were last thereby rendering some children orphans and homeless exposing them to various types of criminal activities consequently upon the take of parental control.

The deviant behaviour which followed the war among others include abuse of drugs, corruption and stealing and some area where the population was near extirpation due to death and diseases of the time, comities encouraged free interactions of boys and girls for procreation to prevent the communities from being extinct. The problem now arises because some teenager feels that such male and female relationship should remain a permanent norm of life in their communities. Scholars, researchers should have understood and seek out solutions to this ugly trend over the years. The researcher therefore is of the opinion that there are perhaps serious factors that bring about increase in deviant behaviours in Nigerian schools environment.

This is the more so considering the huge investment which both the Federal and State Governance should make in education and health sectors to produce a virile future generation. It is fundamental therefore to determine the influence of deviant behavior on the academic performance of secondary school student.

These acts have in no small measures being responsible for the rate of mental instability of youth who are expected to be good citizens and leaders of tomorrow in the society has been completely ruined in the school in which most o f them (students) acquired or learned it from individual factors such as gender, participation in extra-curricular activities, time spent on homework, and class preparation and behaviors from the peer groups as well as school environment factors such as family socio-economic status, the influence of siblings and family communication.

The questions someone may stand to ask are:

  • Is it actually the peer group that makes students to deviate from the school rules and regulations?
  • What prompt the students to join such groups?
  • How does a particular group mould their behaviours?
  • Is it actually the factors/child upbringing that makes students to deviate in the school or society?

To understand the full dynamic of deviant behavior with due emphasis on groups influence, it is necessary to find answers to the following problems/punishment:

  • What socio-cultural conditions are most likely to produce social deviance?
  • Why do people continue to deviate despite the negative sanctions that are brought to bear on them?
  • What benefit or otherwise do they derived?
  • How can deviance best be minimized or controlled?

This study therefore, aims at investigating perception of students on the impact of social deviance on academic performance.

1.3     OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of the research are on the perception of students on the impact of social deviance on academic performance.

  1. To identify the causes of social deviance among students
  2. To find out the types of deviance behaviours that is being practiced by students.
  3. Examine how deviant students can be helped.
  4. To find out the impact of social deviance on academic performance.

1.4     RESEARCH QUESTIONS

  1. What are the causes of social deviance among students?
  2. What are the types of deviant behaviours that are practiced by the students?
  3. What are the ways to examine how deviance students can be help?
  4. What are the impacts of social deviance on academic performance of students?

1.5     SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of this study cannot be over-emphasized because it is belief that the finding will be beneficial to individual parents and institutional agent (e.g teachers, administrators), government and future researchers.

The individual parents will find the finding of the study useful as it will reveal or exposes their weakness on their part and ways to handle their children so as to stop them indulging/involving in any forms of social deviance. And the institutional agent will find it easy to defined appropriate classroom behaviors.

The findings will also help the government agencies to put the necessary infrastructure facilities and to come up with good policies that will eradicate/minimized or controlled the involvement of students in social deviance/deviant acts. The work or study will like to carryout study on the subject matter.

Lastly, the study is in partial fulfillment for the award of Higher National Diploma in social Development department, college of Administrative studies and social sciences (CASSS) Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna.

1.6     SCOPE/LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The research is therefore, pertinent to point out that because of time, space and financial constraints; the work/study is delimited/ restricted to the college of administrative studies and social sciences (CASSS), department of social development ND II students, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna. And also restricted to perception of students on the impact of social deviance on academic performance.

The study will not cover whole department and as such, it is restricted/delimited to ND II students of department of social development.

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IMPACT OF NATIONAL POVERTY ERADICATION PROGRAMME (NAPEP) ON RURAL DWELLERS IN ESAN WEST LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, EDO STATE

IMPACT OF NATIONAL POVERTY ERADICATION PROGRAMME (NAPEP) ON RURAL DWELLERS IN ESAN WEST LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, EDO STATE

ABSTRACT

This research titled “Impact of National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP) on rural dwellers in Esan West Local Government area, Edo State” is aimed at revealing the level of success recorded by NAPEP in Nigeria. Three research objectives were raised and two hypotheses were formulated. The research objectives are to expose the extent to which NAPEP has impacted on rural dwellers in accessing credit facilities in Esan West Local Government Area, show how NAPEP has made impacted on rural residents terns of skills acquisition in Esan West Local Government Area, and unearth the impact NAPEP has made on rural inhabitants in relation to employment in Esan West Local Government Area. The sample size was 400 respondents selected through a purposive sampling technique. The research made use of both primary and secondary sources of gathering information. The simple percentage was used to analyze respondents’ opinions while Pearson correlation coefficient was used to test and analyze the hypotheses. The research findings revealed that the National Poverty Eradication Programme did not significantly improve the degree of credit facilities accessed by the rural populace of Esan West Local Government Area, the National Poverty Eradication Programme did not positively enhance the level of skills acquired by the rural dweller in Esan West Local Government Area, and the National Poverty Eradication Programme did not appreciably improve the height of employment among the rural residents in Esan West Local Government. The recommendations of this research study is that government should provide more vocational training centres ‘] while the existing ones should be equipped and properly maintained. Also Small and medium scale enterprises should be given adequate attention by the government as this will enhance capacity prog

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IMPACT OF ELECTRICITY POWER SUPPLY ON THE PERFORMANCE OF SMALL AND MEDIUM SCALE ENTERPRISE (SMSs) IN NIGERIA (1980 – 2014)

IMPACT OF ELECTRICITY POWER SUPPLY ON THE PERFORMANCE OF SMALL AND MEDIUM SCALE ENTERPRISE (SMSs) IN NIGERIA (1980 – 2014)

ABSTRACT

This study is a critical evaluation of the Impact of Electricity Power Supply on the Performance of Small and Medium Scale Enterprise in Nigeria (1980-2014).  The researcher made use of Ordinary Least Square (OLS) regression technique in analysing the Impact of Electricity Power Supply on Small and Medium Scale Enterprise in Nigeria.  There are also other variables that determine the performance of Small and Medium Scale Enterprise.  Findings from the study shows that all the variables included in the model contributes in explaining the performance of Small and Medium Scale Enterprise in Nigeria which shows R2 0.8899.  The contributions of these variables may strongly depend on the circumstances in Nigerian economic environment.  The study found out that a unit change in Electricity Power Supply has a positive impact on the output of small and medium scale Enterprise.  Based on the findings, certain recommendations were made which include government increasing investment in the power sector, government policies aimed at encouraging SMEs to access public equity capital and also a need for an opening of the market for greater competition in the supply and distribution of electricity.

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Access to a reliable electricity supply is widely considered to be vital to the operations of most small and medium-scale businesses (World Bank Enterprise Surveys, 2013). The analysis of Enterprise Survey data according to Foster and Steinbuks (2008), in middle and lower income countries, firms themselves consider access to electricity to be one of the biggest constraints to their business.

Inadequate electricity services can constrain business operations because a supply of electricity may simply be unavailable and, if it is available, securing a connection may be difficult and the supply unreliable, even before its cost is considered. High quality and accessible infrastructure encourages productivity, business growth and investment, but when it is poor and unreliable, businesses’ productivity and growth suffer.

An unreliable electricity supply can affect several aspects of business operations. The most significant impacts to productivity can be due to forced and unexpected halts in manufacturing processes, including running assembly lines, using machine tools, or producing textiles. Communications, delivery times, lighting and refrigeration are also affected by electricity insecurity, with consequences for the routine operation of businesses and their ability to ensure delivery times (Adenikinju, 2005).

Many small and medium-scale enterprises invest in their own stand-by generators to ensure an electricity supply, but these are often expensive compared to electricity from the grid. Generators also require some technical expertise as well as reliable supplies of fuel and spare parts. Yet, in sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere own-generation by firms is reported to have increased in recent years.

Empirical studies have shown that the small and medium scale industries (SMEs) have in many state enhanced greater employment opportunities per unit of capital invested and aided the development of local technology. This explains the deep interest which developing nation has shown in the promotion of small and medium scale industries since the 1970s (Moyo, 2012).

1.2 Statement of Research Problem

There are various factors affecting the performance of small and medium scale enterprise sub sector ranging from inadequate capital to unfavourable tariff policy, however, the poor state of power supply in Nigeria is one of the significant factors militating against the performance of small and medium scale enterprise.

Despite series of investments made by past government over the years on the power sector to improve the poor state power situation in the country, the entire nation still suffers power shortage and black out (Godwin, 2015). The privatization of the power sector was meant to improve the power insecurity of the country but the national power grid has been on the decline from about 4000 megawatts in 1999 to 1300 megawatts in 2014 (Amadi, 2010).

The equity and quality of a country’s electricity power supply determines its ability to create competitive industries. Since the performance of SMEs In any state is greatly influenced by the electricity supply. Given the pathetic state of electricity power supply in Nigeria it is no wonder that the contribution of the development the state, manufacturing sector and the economy general is very negligible or unsupported by the government.

Power supply has remained unreliable and power out-ages load shedding and rationing has become very frequent. Power supply has been erratic and unreliable that many businesses have resorted to purchasing private generator at a very high cost. The substantial investment in private generating plants is estimated to be of capacity of over 250mm, which is almost half of power holding company of Nigeria (PHCN) available capacity.

1.3 Research Questions

The study would therefore provide answers to the following fundamental questions.

  1. What is the impact of electricity power supply on the productivity of SMEs in Nigeria?
  2. How does commercial Bank credit impact the productivity of SMEs?

1.4 Objective of the Study

The objectives of this research study are to provide a clear picture on the activities of effects of power on the performance of small and medium scale industries. The specific objectives of the study are:

  • To examine the impact of Electricity power supply on the performance of SMEs in Nigeria.
  • To examine the impact of commercial Bank credit on the performance of SMEs in Nigeria

1.5 Hypotheses

  1. H0: Electricity Power Supply does not have any significant impact on the productivity of SMEs in Nigeria.

H1:  Electricity Power Supply has significant impact on the productivity of SMEs in Nigeria.

  1. H0 Commercial Bank credit does not have any significant impact on the productivity of SMEs in Nigeria

H1          Commercial Bank credit does significant impact on impact of SMEs in Nigeria     

1.6   Significance of the Study

The outcome of this study will assist government parastatals and it agencies like the Ministry of power, who are the policy makers and regulatory bodies  and also the electricity distribution company scattered across the country for decision and policy making as regards improving the state of small and medium scale enterprise.

This study will create awareness to the government to see the extent to which neglect of infrastructural facilities such as electricity is hampering the performance of SMEs in meeting the potentials of providing employment per unit investment capital, facilitating   the   development   of   indigenous entrepreneurships,  enhancing  local  resources  utilization  and  value added,  expanding  non-oil  exports  at  competitive  prices,  improving balance of payment position and bring about overall growth and development of the state economy.

It will add to the available literature on the areas of study while also providing the platform for other researchers to further this study.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The research work is concerned basically with the roles to lay emphasis on power supply and the performance of small and medium scale enterprise in the state and will cover those SMEs in state that have electricity as relevant infrastructure for their production process. The analysis covers the period of 1980-2014.

1.8 Definition of Terms

–           Electricity Power Supply

–           Small and Medium Scale Enterprises (SMEs)

–           Productivity or Performance of SMEs

–           Commercial Bank Credit to SMEs

1.9 Electricity Supply

According to Energy Networks Association ‘ENA’ (2008), Customer Guide to Electricity Supply (2008),the physical process of electricity supply is divided into three broad stages; generation, transmission, and distribution. Power generation, transmission and distribution involve flow of currents with heat losses in conductors. These losses can be reduced through better design, construction and maintenance. In addition to the physical aspects, there is a commercial overlay involving the trading of electricity between generators and retailers or, in some circumstances, generators and large electricity users.

SMEs:  These are non subsidiary independent firms which employs fewer than a given number of employees of not less than 10 employees and not more than 250. Commercial Bank credit to SMEs in the case of SMEs, bank credit or loan is the major alternative of external funding (James & Ashamu 2014) the findings shows that Bank Credit to SMEs have significant effect of Nigeria economic growth.

Performance of SMEs:  SMEs all over the world have seen playing a crucial role in promoting economic development as well as industrial production in a developing economy such as Nigerian.  SMEs are considered as a living force for a sustainable economic development because of generating employment improving local technology output diversification developing indigenous entrepreneurship and forward integration with large scale industries. (A.O. Adaramola)

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IMPACT OF MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVE (MBO) ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE IN NIGERIA BANKING INDUSTRY

ABSTRACT

Human resources are the most important and dynamic among all the resources an organisation owns. To retain efficient and experienced workforce in an organisation is very crucial in the overall performance of an organisation. A satisfied employee can help make an organisation more profitable and competitively.  The present study is an attempt to evaluate the impact of management by objective method on employee performance in the banking industry. The data collected from employees of First Bank Nig. Plc, First City Monument Bank Plc and Guarantee Trust Bank Plc in Ado Ekiti, in all 80 self-administered questionnaires were successfully completed. Based on the findings the study reveals that in hypothesis one there is a there is significant relationship between management by objective and employee performance, since F calculated as 4.000 is less than F- tabulated as 6.613 and for hypothesis two, there is there is no significant relationship between management by objective and productivity in an organisation, since the F calculated is also 4.000 less than F- tabulated as 2862.

  

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background to the study

          Management needs a lot of tools to be able to administer effectively in the day running of the business. Management by objective is one of the tools. It is a way of getting improved results in managerial action. Management boy objective can be described as managerial method whereby the superior and the subordinate in an organisation identify major areas of responsibility, in which they will work, set some standards for the good or bad performance and the measurement of results against those standards Derek (2005).;

Management by objective is also called management by objectives. However, there have been certain individuals who have long placed emphasis on management by objectives and by so doing have given impetus to its development as a system. Management by objective referred to a structured management technique of setting goals for any organisational unit.

George S. Odiorne(1981) in his book of management by objective defined this concept as “a system of management whereby the superior and the subordinate jointly identify objectives, define individuals major areas of responsibility in terms of results expected, and the use these objectives and expected results as guide for separating the units and assessing the contribution of each member. Besides, Odiorne points out that management by objective is a system of management and   overall framework used to guide the organisation units and outline its direction. He went further to point that the superior and the subordinate jointly identify objectives. In other words, it is a participative management procedure that requires commitment and cooperation. The definition deals with identifying the results that are expected. Thus, management by objectives concentrates on the output of the organisation evaluating people by   assessing their contribution to this output.

Management by objectives is a strategy wherein the management sets specific goals for the employees to accomplish within a fixed time period. Management by objective is a dynamic system which seeks to integrate the company’s need to clarify and achieve the profit and growth with the managers needs to contribute and develop him. It is a demanding and rewarding style of managing a business.

Management by objective can work in any size of the organisation if the procedures are understood and managers are patient in letting the system set in first. Management by objective is an effective planning, controlling and development system. Management by objective was defined by Koontz and O’Donnell (1968) as a technique system or method of management whereby the superior and subordinate managers of an organisation agreed on its broad goals, translate these goals, defined each expected individuals major areas of responsibility in terms of results expected, continually reviewing the accomplishment as the sole basis of assessing and rewarding them. Management by objective gives the employee the opportunity to participate in decision making. It assumes that the employee has been properly selected and trained and will be responsible for achieving the desired results in the organisation.

The underlying belief is that this involvement of employee leads to commitment and if an employee is committed, he can be directed to perform in a manner that positively contributes to the achievement of the organisational objectives. The MBO afford both the superior and the subordinate the opportunity to sit together and jointly identify common goals of enterprise to define individual’s areas of responsibility term of the results expected of him and use these measures as guide for operating the unit and assessing the contribution and each of its misers. This leads to the four basic components of the Management by objectives system: 

*          Setting performance objectives and standards for their accomplishment

*          Developing action plans

*          Coaching and counseling

*          Annual performance appraisal

Organisations are ubiquitous. According to Mullins (2005), organisations are designed by people to overcome individual limitations and achieve individually. Hence, organisations become a means of survival for the people and exert an important daily influence on the life of the people and the way they live. The major decider for the survival of any organisation is the presence of capable men and women with the right technique to combine the organisation resource man, machine, money and material) to achieve organisational goals.

It is appropriate to note that management of companies in Nigeria lack sufficient techniques to make them manage effectively. Some of the tools are used and when used are not properly utilized. Management by objective is not only a managerial strategy to achieve a well-coordinated managerial goal, but it is also a popular management technique that pervades or cut across all human activities namely business areas, education, health, government and non-profit organisation. Most of the technique, system, and tools of management are hardly understood resulting in losses and changes to the organisation. Besides, it is the wrong use of technique and unwillingness of top management to utilize the right tool to solve the management problems. It is on these trends that the researcher intends to find out the impact of MBO method on employees performance in Nigeria Banking Industry. In order to investigate the above impact, one of the leading financial institutions in the country, First Bank of Nigeria, First City Monument Bank and Guarantee Trust Bank in Ado-Ekiti has been chosen.

1.2      Statement of the Problem

Management by objective is not an instant solution for organisational problems.  Quite often many organisations see MBO as an instant solution to their problems. They fail to recognise that MBO demands careful planning and proper implementation. Many organisations have been overwhelmed by problems of MBO and Management by objective as a concept itself has a problem of wrong implementation like incomplete understanding of MBO philosophy in personal, poor planning and lack of guidelines for implementation, practical difficulty in setting objectives, increased pressure and frustration on subordinates, quantitative bias and lack of follow up.

MBO is a time consuming process. Objectives, at all levels of the organisation, are set carefully after considering pros and cons which consumes lots of time. The superior are required to hold frequent meetings in order to acquaint subordinates to the new system. The formal, periodic progress and final review sessions also consumes time.

It is pertinent to note that MBO is based on reward and punishment approach. It tries to discriminately force improvement on employees. At times it may penalize the people whose performance remains below the goals. Reward is provided only for the superior performance. Often MBO operates more problems than it can solve. An incident of tug of war is not uncommon. The subordinates try to set the lowest possible targets and the superior the highest. When objectives cannot be restricted in number, it leads to obscure priorities and create a sense of fear among subordinates. Added to this, the programme is used as a whip to control employee performance.

A well-conceived MBO programme requires three to five years of operation before it provides fruitful results. Managers and subordinates should be oriented so that they do not look forward to MBO for instant solution. Proper time and resources should be allocated and people should also be properly trained in the philosophy of MBO. There has been an interrupted information feedback which has caused a gap between goal setting and goal performance. Following the above, this study will examine the relatedness of proper planning, adequate time for measuring the benefit of the system, follow up, the exclusion of reward and punishment approach to the successful implementation of MBO.            

1.3      Research Questions

In review of the problems associated with this topic, the following research questions are vital to in-depth analysis of this topic. This are:

  1. Is there any factor militating against effective implementation of management by objective in an organisation?
  2. To what extent are employees given the appropriate authority and responsibility for effective management by objective?
  • Does MBO have effect on productivity in an organisation?
  1. To what extent does MBO determines employee’s performance towards achieving the objectives of the organisation?

1.4     Objectives of the Study

The general objective of the study is to find out the impact of the MBO method on employees performance in the Nigeria Banking Industry. The specific objective of the study includes this:-

  1. To examine the factors mitigating against the effective utilization of Management by Objective
  2. To measure the extent to which employees are given authority and responsibilities for effective Management by Objective
  • To measure the relationship between employees’ performance and Management by Objective
  1. To measure the effect of Management by Objective in an organisation

1.5    Research Hypotheses                                                                                        

The following null hypotheses have been formulated for the study;

H0- There is no significant relationship between MBO and employee performance.

H0- There is no significant relationship between MBO and productivity in an organisation.

1.6        Significance of the Study

Practicing management by objective will make the management of First Bank of Nigeria, First City Monument Bank and Guarantee Trust Bank to be more assertive in their decision making. It will assist the subordinate in the above-mentioned banks to be able to identify themselves with the objective of the company and the role they will play. Management of First Bank plc.in particular would find the result of this research very rewarding and variable when applying management by objective.

From this result, they would know the particular problem jeopardizing the correct application of management by objective, and thereby take remedial action. Consequently, the acceptance of this study and adoption of the research’s recommendation could assist the management of First Bank plc. and other organisation and public sectors in making sound and strategic decision to improve employee performance and productivity through careful result measurement, appraisal rating and commensurate reward system.

1.7     Scope of the Study

This research work is limited to First Bank plc. , First City Monument Bank and Guarantee Trust Bank in Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti state, Nigeria and how different organisation can be managed better by the managers setting the goals and all the company members working towards achieving the goals.

1.8    Operational definition terms

  1. Management by objective (MBO): It is the process of defining objectives within an organisation so that management and employees agree to the objectives and understand what they need to do in the organisation in order to achieve them.
  2. Management: The organisation and coordination of the activities of a business in order to achieve defined objectives.
  3. Manager: A manager is a person who oversees employees or department in a business.
  4. Employees: An individual who works part-time or full-time under a contract of employment, whether oral or written, express or implied, and has recognised rights and duty.
  5. Employers: An employer’s is a person or institution that hires employees or workers.
  6. PLC (Public Limited Company): It is limited liability Company whose shares may be freely sold and traded to the public with a minimum share capital of 500,000 and the letters plc after its name.
  7. Subordinate: A person under the authority or control of another within an organisation.
  8. Superior: Something which is higher in a hierarchical structure of any kind.
  9. Objective: A specific result that a person or system aims to achieve within a time frame and with available resources.
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THE IMPACT OF FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN CONTROLLING FRAUD IN THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT SYSTEM IN KADUNA STATE

THE IMPACT OF FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN CONTROLLING FRAUD IN THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT SYSTEM IN KADUNA STATE

ABSTRACT

This study examined “The Impact of Financial Management in Controlling Fraud in the Local Government System”. Purposefully, the study assessed the techniques that can be employed in the public financial management and the factors that can affect the impact of public financial management in controlling fraud in the local government system in Kaduna State. The researcher used descriptive and survey designs to carry out the study. The sample size of the population was 80. So 80 questionnaires of nineteen (19) items each were administered to 80 respondents comprising of 31 senior staff and 49 junior staff, who were local government accountants, councilors, key officers of the ministry of finance, Accountant-General and Auditor-General staff in Kaduna State. But, sixty-six (66) usable questionnaires provided the database (given an 82.5% response rate) in this study The data obtained was analysed using SPSS statistical program version 17. The data was reliable because of the high coefficient value of 0.797 obtained. In the analysis, the two null hypotheses which state that (i) “there are no specific techniques to be employed in the public financial management in controlling fraud in the local government system” and (ii) “there are no specific factors that will enhance the impact of public financial management in controlling fraud in the local government system” respectively are rejected. Based on the findings, conclusion was drawn and recommendations given.

 

Chapter One

INTRODUCTION

1.0       Introduction

1.1       Background of the Study

A well-functioning local government administration must establish a sound public financial management and delivers quality public services consistent with citizen preferences and fosters private market-led growth while managing fiscal resources prudently to alleviate poverty and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. This important new series aims to advance those objectives by disseminating conceptual guidance and lessons from practices and by facilitating learning from one another’s experiences on ideas and practices that promote responsive public governance.

Fundamentally, this chapter covers the introductory part that provides the background of the study for better understanding of local government financial management. The problem of the study is clearly stated as well as the objective of the study is defined, followed by the main research questions that guide the study. As a matter of arriving at conclusive end of the study, this chapter also proposes hypotheses for verification. The significance and scope of the study is also disclosed. The terminologies used are well defined for clarity purpose and to have insight of the study. However, the study is organized according to the prescribed procedures of administrative sciences.

Financial management in local government administrative setting is a public financial management. Unlike financial management in the private sector, public sector financial management is geared towards non-profit oriented services to the public. Therefore, financial management and control in local government perspective is a public financial management (PFM). Public financial management is an essential part of public administration. Hence, effective delivery of public services in the local government level can only be achieved if there is sound public financial management system to ensure accountability and efficiency in the management of public resources. In fact, public resources are critical to the achievement of public policy objectives, including achievement of the Millennium development goals, such as, the 7-points agenda in Nigeria.

Public financial management is that aspect of administrative function that concerns planning and controlling of public financial resources. Thus, the main focus on public financial management is how to efficiently and effectively utilize public resources to meet the needs of the people in an equitable manner. Therefore, to carry out effective delivery of public services in the local government areas, the key issues to be examined, inter alia,involve the quality of the budget process which include degree of discipline, efficiency in revenue mobilization and extent of transparency, accountability and control in the local government administrative system.

In a situation that proper public financial management is not observed, there is always poor implementation of development projects in the rural areas which jeopardize the effort of government good intentions to reach the rural dwellers in various local government areas. Hence, good functioning of public financial management in location government administration requires patriotic governance, so as to move in the right direction of development goals. This implies that the public financial management system should be designed in such a way as to deliver quality services to the rural dwellers in local government areas, most especially in Kaduna State. Besides, public financial management requires that available financial resources should be used for intended purposes that have been decided upon through policy formulation which are to be delivered at acceptable quality.

Consequently, reasonable governance is required to establish a sound public financial management system that is responsible for planning, budgeting, implementation and follow-up of government financed projects in the rural areas so as to create better conditions for sustainable development (Hallgerd, D. et.al. 2005:8). In reality, development authorities always use public financial management system to channel budget support, based on the policy guidelines. This goes a long way to enhance even-distribution of sustainable development extended to rural areas.

Ideally, the creation of local government authorities is to extend government functional objectives to the grass root level so that the people in the rural areas will also feel being governed. It is international broad view that many countries in the world, established sound public financial management system to ensure good governance by providing basic amenities for people in rural areas just as what people enjoy in the urban cities. Thus, rural areas are being considered in making decisions on development proposals based on sustainable development principles, ensuring an integrated approach to: recognizing the needs of the people; effective protection and enhancement of the environment; prudent use of natural resources; and maintaining high and stable levels of economic growth and employment. All of these boil down to good public financial management system not only applicable to local government administration alone but also to state and federal governments’ administration. As far as local government authorities receive monthly allocations, collect revenue and incur expenditures, there is need to practice sound public financial management to plan and control available fund for carrying out development goals among other things. Thus, it will go a long way to eradicate poverty in the rural areas. Poverty in the rural areas is not news in Nigerian environment. In order to cope with the challenges facing rural poverty reduction, local government administration must practice an effective financial planning and control so as to make good use of available resources for the benefit of the people. This could be done only if the government of the day looks into: (1) policy and strategy development; (2) rural and agricultural business development; and (3) livelihoods development. In these modern times, things had tremendously changed by rapid growth of technological development all over the world. This has exposed even the rural dwellers to what is known as good standard of living. Today, rural dwellers are also sensitive to basic needs like clean drinking water, electricity, good food, good shelter, healthy environment to live, good health care delivery system, good roads, etc. In other words, rural dwellers are also humans who have the same feelings like those in the urban areas. And most especially, due to creation of new states, some of the state capitals are located very close to some of the rural areas of which the dwellers have the reflexion of city life style.

Reasonably, the practice of good public financial management system by local government administration will enhance speedy development in any rural area of Kaduna State. To allow sustainable development to take place, there must be a proper public financial management system to ensure rightful decision-making, budgeting, implementing, controlling and follow-up. Thus, rural areas would be opportune to have sustainable development for its dwellers to enjoy social amenities.

Auditing is originally a financial management concerned with assessing practice for the internal financial status of the organization and the evaluations of the financial performance of the organization (Manal, 1999). Auditing practices have evolved over the years and developed into the broader aspects to become a field of fraud detection and financial accountability. It also provides feedback on organization financial information and reporting. It also becomes a tool for an analysis of any fraudulent activity, potential and actual within the organization.

Audit is one of the mechanisms to the fight corruption. Most of the standard setting in the auditing profession has taken place in the private sector and corruption has not been a serious issue in the private sector because the auditing profession, as it has evolved, has its roots in the private sector where audit against corruption is not a serious concern of the stakeholders who are more interested in fraud or theft of their assets (Okafor&Ibadin, 2009). This, no doubt is responsible for the very little discussion in the literature on corruption auditing and probably the lack of standards for auditing corruption. Almost all professional bodies of auditors across the globe have published standards and techniques about fraud auditing.

Fraud is an intentional misrepresentation, concealment, or omission of the truth for the purpose of deception/manipulation to the financial detriment of an individual or an organization which also includes embezzlement, theft or any attempt to steal or unlawfully obtain, misuse or harm the asset of the organization.

Aderibigbe and Dada (2007) see fraud as a deliberate deceit, planned and executed with the intent to deprive another person of his property or rights directly or indirectly, regardless of whether the perpetrator benefits from his/her actions. Bostley and Dover (1972) and Adeduro (1998) noted that fraud has increased considerably over the recent years and professionals believe this trend is likely to continue. On the other hand, financial irregularities refer to intentional mistake or distortions of financial statement such as misrepresentation or misappropriation of assets. In simple term it refers to forgery or alteration of cheques, drafts, promissory notes and securities. This can be curtailed in any organization through the provision of an internal audit which is a part of the internal control system.

1.2       Statement of the Problem

The essence of any financial management in controlling fraud in the local government system is to safeguard available resources and make rational use of them to achieve desired goals. The most targeted goal of local government administration as allegiance to the people is to develop the area in order to provide public services for the rural dwellers. In view of this fact, it is a compelling concern about what system of financial management is being practiced in the local government authorities of Kaduna State. The reason why the compelling concern arose is that many local government areas are poorly developed and lack social amenities such as motorable roads; pipe born water; good communication system; transport system; health care delivery system; and to mention but few. Basically, it should have been the responsibility of each and every local government authority to develop its area of jurisdiction, only if there is a sound public financial management set in place as a strategy of local government administration as government channel to reach the grass root level.

The doubt is that in many local government areas, there is no visible progress of development. Then, one may ask of what happen to the monthly allocations, grants and other sources of revenue collection? Sometimes too, salaries of local government staff are hardly paid. Does it mean there is no genuine practice of planning and control of public financial resources in local government administration? Or is local government fund diverted into wrongful use as a matter of attitudinal factor of our political administrators to neglect sound financial management for selfish political ambitions? What then, will be the faith of rural dwellers in the face of challenging environmental degradation and increasing hardship? The attempt to find answers to these questions would be a stimulant to this study.

1.3       Objectives of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to examine the impact of public financial management in controlling fraud in the local government system. The sub objectives are the following:

  1. To determine techniques employed in the public financial management in controlling fraud in the local government system
  2. To examine factors affecting the impact of public financial management in controlling fraud in the local government system

1.4       Research Questions

The research questions for the research work are:

  1. What are the techniques to be employed in the public financial management in controlling fraud in the local government system?
  2. What are the factors affecting the impact of public financial management in controlling fraud in the local government system?

1.5       Research Hypotheses

Research hypothesis is a tentative and predictive answer to a question which is subjected to the power of verification and its formulation can be expressed in:

  1. Null Hypothesis (Ho)
  2. Alternative Hypothesis (H1)

Since hypothesis is statistical method of testing the attributes of predictive condition, we can test the study under the following hypotheses:

H01: There are no specific techniques to be employed in the public financial management in controlling fraud in the local government system.

H02: There are no specific factors that will enhance the impact of public financial management in controlling fraud in the local government system.

1.6       Significance of the Study

It is timely to carry out this study in view of the prevailing poor living conditions of rural dwellers in Kaduna State. Many people are doll founded about what is happening to local government administrative authorities, if at all they practice public financial management with regards to rural development. People are dissatisfied with urban immigration from rural areas, congesting the cities with rapid increase in population. Do these issues associate with local government public financial management that concerns quality delivery of public services? Does local government administration in Kaduna State observe effective and judicious use of public resources available? These aspects are outstanding areas of study yet to have coverage in form of documentation.

Nevertheless, the significance of this study derived from the effort to contribute to existing literature on the matter of local government public financial management in Kaduna State. In addition, it proffers suggestions to improve on public financial management system with regards to providing quality public services for rural dwellers. Thus, local government caretaker committees/councils will find this study useful to setup a sound public financial management system to address the prevailing problems of poverty situation nationwide. Hence, the study draw the attention of local government administrators on good financial planning and control to extend sustainable development projects to the rural areas as the only way to show good governance.

1.7       Scope and Limitation of the Study

This study is limited to the examination of the impact of public financial management of local government administration on effective and judicious use of public financial resources in Kaduna State. The research study therefore covers a cross-section of local government administrators, local government Accountants/Auditors in Kaduna State. Basically, the study focused attention on selected individuals of reputable personalities of State and local government officials who are vast about local government financial management in Kaduna State. This limitation is due to time and cost constraint to conduct the research by administering a questionnaire and face-to-face interviews to obtain valid and reliable information.

1.8       Operational Definitions of Terms

Terminologies used in this study are defined for clarity purpose to have insight of the subject matter. Hence, the key terms used in this study are conceptually defined as follows:

Accountability: This is the responsibility of rendering an account of what must have transpired in the implementation of budget proposals including administration, development programmes and projects.

Budget: A budget is a quantitative plan for a forthcoming accounting period. Its purpose is multifaceted and intended to: (1) help with planning; (2) co-ordinate activities of the state; (3) communicate objectives to the relevant people; (4) monitor the performance against the plan; (5) control activities; and (6) evaluate performance (Hughes, 2003).

Development: This means the improvement of people’s life styles through improved education, incomes, skill development. It also means that people should have decent housing, and that they should have security within those houses and people should be able to read and write.

Financial Management: Is that managerial activity which is concerned with the planning and controlling of the firms’ financial resources (Pandy, 2005:3).

Financial Planning and Control: According to Weston and Copeland (1989:211), financial planning and control involve the use of projective based on standards and the development of a feedback and adjustment process to improve performance.

Fiscal Policy: Fiscal policy is the use of government tax (revenue) and spending powers to alter economic outcomes. In other words, it refers to public tax (revenue) and expenditure activities. This can be used to pursue any economic goals of a nation (Schiller, 1986:112,207).

Project: Project is a one-time activity with well-defined set of desired results (Hellriegel and Slocum, 1996:189).

Public Financial Management: This is a system that involves the budget and budgeting process, the payment system, procurement, the accounting system, auditing and taxation. Hence, well functioning systems for public financial management are pre-requisites for improved effectiveness of development cooperation in general.

Sustainable Development: Sustainable Development is the development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Transparency: The quality of showing the true picture of a situation for easy understanding. This means that the revenue and expenditure of public finance should be disclosed of the true position of what has transpired.

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IMPACT OF INTERNET HIP HOP MUSICIANS LIFESTYLE AMONG YOUTHS OF KAWO NEW EXTENSION, KADUNA

ABSTRACT

This study examines the impact of internet hip hop musicians’ life styles among the youths of Kawo new extension Kaduna. The objectives of the study is to examine the impact of internet hip hop musicians life styles on the youths of Kawo new extension Kaduna, perception of Kawo new extension youths on internet hip hop musicians life styles and to find out whether youths of Kawo new extension Kaduna adopt the life style of internet hip hop musicians. The modeling theory was adopted as the theoretical framework. Survey method was used for the study using purposive sampling techniques. Questionnaire was the instrument used for data collection. Out of 501 questionnaires administered, 470 were retrieved. Findings of the study revealed that the youths in Kawo new extension adopt the life styles of the hip hop musicians. In conclusion, the youths of Kawo new extension Kaduna imitates the mode of dressing of the hip hop musicians and how they speak. This study recommend that The hip hop musicians should adopt the use of good languages and decent dressings as majority of the youths tends to imitate their mode of dressings and how they speak. The research suggested that further studies should be carried out on perception of the general publics on the impact of internet hip hop musicians life styles on youths in Nigeria and evaluation of government impact on promotion of hip hop musicians in Nigeria.

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1   Background to the study

The internet is a communication network among computers. It allows you to locate and retrieve information on other computers linked to the internet as well as send messages electronically to and from other people on the internet and elsewhere. When you use an internet software application, the client software will be either on your personal computer, the computer you log onto for access to the internet (your host) or yet another computer to which you connect in order to use client software you may not have on your computer.

The major tool viewers use to access the internet is the World Wide Web. It is based on technology called hypermedia. With hypermedia, information in one document can be linked to other, related documents. Linked information can consist of not only text and graphics, but audio and video information as well. WWW is an ambitious, exciting and powerful attempt to link connected information wherever it may be located on the internet, allowing the user to easily access and retrieve related files.

Internet is being used by all age group in Nigeria. It was introduced to help in official job and passing message to distance in short period of time, but in this current world now it is being used for all purposes like study, news, entertainment, music, videos games, research etc. Many youth today use internet to view the latest gist about hip hop musicians, such as their music, lifestyles, videos etc.

Hip Hop is a cultural movement by African-American expressed through the traditional elements of Ding, Ming, various forms of dance(breaking, popping, locking) and writing(graffiti art).Hip hop represents other aspects of culture as well, such as language and style of dress. Hip hop music became popular outside of the African-American community in 1980s after the rise of new media platforms and web 2.0 technology of the internet, fans would primarily consume the musical genre through social networking sites (SNS) beginning with Myspace evolving to notable mobile apps like YouTube, Worldstarhiphop, SoundCloud and Spotify.

The advent of hiphop, in Nigeria has been a welcome phenomenon, while some people believe it has created a massive and unappealing change in the life of the youths, insisting it’s slowly but surely wiping out the Nigerian culture coupled with the perception that the whole world is emulating America in a lot of ways, and Nigeria is no exception (Leadership Newspaper, 2014).

It is a known fact that in the 21stcentury, young Nigerians frequently citeJay-Z and other hip hop artist as their favorite artist. Hip hop music has provided a blueprint for every part of the world to appropriate and build new cultural formations that manifest in music and identity. Yet, the subtitle of Jay-Z’s Blueprint 2 album,“The Gift and The Curse” is an apt description for the complexity of the relationship between African American culture and Nigerian youth identity, which also impacts Nigerian popular music (Adeolu, 2011).

Hip hop in Nigeria dates back to the late eighties and early nineties. Groups and solo artists during that period include the likes of Junior & Pretty, Daniel, Danny Wilson, PlantashunBoyz, Remedies with members EedrisAbdulkareem, Eddy Remedy & Tony Tetuila’. It is estimated that 80-percent of urban youth in Nigeria can be reached through Hip-Hop, which encompasses rap, graffiti, dancing and fashion’ The late 90s and the 2000s saw a remarkable increase of artists and groups like Eldee da Don of Freestyle, Ikechuku, JJC and the 419 squad, D’banj and P-Square became a part of mainstream Nigerian music after the collapse of pop trends like Yo-pop. Most of the Nigerian youths who view the Biography of these musicians either through the internet or other means, or listen to their music usually try to adopt the lifestyles of these musicians into their own lifestyles either through dressing, speech and even how they walk without putting the society they belong to into consideration. However, ‘The availability of computers and cheap music editing software in the late 1990s and the 2000s enabled Nigerian musicians to achieve higher quality recordings, which quickly won over the Nigerian audience. (Ikonne U)

 

Hip hop in kawo is a trending activity as kawo has enough hip hop musicians which their music is aired within and outside kawo by the youths. Musicians from other areas and state collaborate with them to make new music. Hip-hop in kawo has also become an effective tool to communicate with youth under siege, using the language they understand. A Social consciousness hip-hop workers have used the microphone and their message to speak to the youth about crime, drugs and have conducted workshops in town halls addressing the youth about the dangers of dangerous living. Hip hop in kawo has gone beyond being just about music, but has actually become a brand, a lifestyle and culture that almost every youth in kawo aspires to be associated with, also 80-percent of youth in kawo can be reached through Hip-Hop, which encompasses rap, graffiti, dancing and fashion.

Kawo is one of the populated area in Kaduna North local government area compare to Doka, Malali, Ungwarrimi, Ungwarshanu, Ungwardosa, Kanawa etc. it has a population of more than sixteen thousand four hundred and sixty seven people according to 2016 population census. Among the population, there are three major tribes including other minority tribes. The most dominants are the Hausas with 40% followed by Fulanis with 25%, Gbagyi are 20% and the remaining 15% are other minority tribes which include Yoruba, Igbo, Jukun etc. (Hauwau’uEand Yusuf A.A)

Kawo lies within the territory boundary of Kaduna metropolis and situated in the north of Kaduna. Kawo extends southwards as far as unguwardosa, and to the north as far as unguwargbagyi and the old airport (now air force base). To the west, kawo extends as far as hayinbanki, while to the east, river Kaduna serves as a limit. In addition, kawo lies very close to the Kaduna-Zaria road.

The major source as the origin by which kawo derived its name was from a tree known as kawo in a Gbagy dialect. The kawo tree was quit dominant in the area. In those days, people travelling either by road or rail do ask the driver or colleagues “have we reached the tree (kawo)”. As a result the result was usually “MunKawo”, we have arrived. Thus the name kawo came to stay. (M.BSalau, 1992). 

Today Kawo is the headquarter of a very large district known as Kawo district. This district however is not only made up of kawo but other important quarters include UnguwarDosa, RafinGuza, UnguwarGbagyi, New Extension (SabonKawo) etc.

However, this study attempt to find out the impact of internet hip hop musicians lifestyles on youth of kawo new extension Kaduna.

1.2   Statement of the problem

In Nigeria today, the youths have become a brain washed set of youths who think more of other peoples culture of such musician lifestyle viewed on the internet or their music and music videos aired on various satellite that are produced overseas and Nigeria. The hip hop music has affected the way many young people and even the elderly see themselves in Nigeria. Both male and female contemporary musicians want to be like Beyoncé, Akon, Jennifer Lopez, Lil Wayne, etc. by putting on skimpy clothes that expose all their natural endowments and clothes that don’t correspond with the weather just because they want to appear cool, ignoring the kind of society they belong.

However, many related research have been carried out by different scholars and researchers on this research work such as The Impact of Youth Hip-Hop and Spoken Word on Adolescent by Emily M. Johnson (2014), but this research work will focus on new area of study which has not been conducted by any researcher before which is the impact of internet hip hop musician lifestyle on the youths of kawo new extension Kaduna.

1.3   Objectives Of The Study

The following are the objectives of this study:

  1. To examine the impact of internet hip hop musician lifestyle on youths of kawo new extension Kaduna
  2. To find out the perception of youths of kawo new extension, Kaduna on internet hip hop musicians lifestyle.
  • To find out whether youth in kawo new extension Kaduna adopt the lifestyle of internet hip hop musicians.

1.4   Research Questions

  1. What is the impact of internet hip hop musician lifestyle on the youths of kawo new extension Kaduna?
  2. What is the perception of internet hip hop musicians lifestyle by youths of kawo new extension, Kaduna?
  3. Do youth in kawo new extension Kaduna adopt the lifestyle of internet hip hop musicians?

1.5   Significance ofthe Study

The outcome of this study will educate the Nigerian general public on the impact of internet hip hop musician lifestyle on youths.

This research will also serve as a resource base to other scholars and researchers interested in carrying out further research in this field subsequently, if applied will go to an extent to provide new explanation to the topic.

1.6   Scope of The study

This study on the impact of internet hip hop musician lifestyle on youths will cover the content of popular foreign and Nigeria hip hop music and lifestyles of musicians with a view of identifying the lifestyle changes it causes on the youths of kawo new extension.

1.7 Definition of Terms

Hip hop: is a cultural movement by African-American expressed through the traditional elements of Ding, Ming, various forms of dance (breaking, popping, locking) and writing (graffiti art).

Youth: a young person who has not yet reached adulthood and refers to the time period before you become an adult

Lifestyle: typically reflects an individual’s attitudes, way of life, values or world view.

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IMPACT OF PERSONALITY TYPE ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

Abstract

This study investigated the impact of personality and motivation on worker’s burnout. Participants were one hundred and twenty one (121) comprising male and female secondary school students (SS 3) of University of Nigeria secondary school, Enugu campus, who were randomly selected. Their ages ranged between 14 to 18 years with a mean age of 31.86 years (SD = 8.66). Between subject design was adopted. One instrument was used for data collection. Type A behaviour Scale (Omoluabi 1997). Two hypotheses were tested. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was the main statistic used for data analysis. ANOVA result showed that personality type did not significantly have impact on academic performance of secondary school students F (1, 117) = 82.50, p>.05. One practical implications of the finding is that developing extrovert personality in secondary school students is key to having more productivity among young ones. Limitations and suggestions for further studies were equally made.

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

There is an international concern on academic performance of students (Romerhausen, 2013). Globally and Nigeria in particular, improving the quality of education and investment on educational and human resources are regarded as effective factors paving the way for a country’s pervasive development. Improvement of students’ academic performance is also among the basic goals of educational planning. And it’s through academic performance that students can fully actualize their talents and capabilities in line with educational goals. Notably, academic performance is considered as one important criteria of educational quality. Therefore, without doubt academic performance presently is a major issue among students, teachers, parents, school administrators, and the community at large. Researchers have made several attempts to unravel the complexities surrounding academic performance (Ikpi, Enya & Johnny, 2014). For example, psychology researchers have put forward a lot of reasons why disparities in achievement among young people exist (Ikpi, Enya & Johnny, 2014). As noted by these researchers, a lot of attention had been paid to external factors such as type of school, teaching methods, school location, instructional materials, quality of lecturers and their experience.

          Academic performance is considered an intellectual competence indicator. Opinions vary as to why some students excel academically while others appear to be underachievers. As a result, many psychologists have consistently attempted to identify the major predictors of individual academic performance. Academic performance on examinations is the result of interactions among multiple variables such as learning. Learning occupies a significant role in the life of students (Mangal & Mangal 2009). It means modification of behaviour (Dutt, 2007) that is measured using the yardstick of academic performance. People have different learning styles that are reflected in different academic strengths, weaknesses, skills, and interests. It has often been asserted that academic performance can be explained largely by factors such as individual initiative, effort, and merit (Timothy, & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2007)

 

Although education is not the only road to success in the working world, much effort is made to identify, evaluate, track and encourage the progress of students in schools (Bell, 2017). Parents care about their child’s academic performance because they believe good academic results will provide more career choices and job security (Bell, 2017). Similarly, schools invested in fostering good academic habits for the same reason. For example they often influence concerns about school’s reputation and the possibility of monetary aid from government institutions, which shows the overall academic performance of the school.

In the past, academic performance of secondary school students was not measured using the present form of using numerical method. Teachers’ observations made up the bulk of the assessment, and today’s summation, or numerical, method of determining how well a student is performing is a fairly recent invention. Grading systems came into existence in the United States in the late Victorian period and were initially criticized due to high subjectivity. However, performance results also allow students to be ranked and sorted on a scale that is numerically obvious, minimizing complaints by holding teachers and schools accountable for the components of every grade.

Academic performance for some researchers is defined by students’ reporting of past semester CGPA/GPA and their expected GPA for the current semester. The grade point average or GPA is now used by most of the tertiary institutions as a convenient summary measure of the academic performance of their students. The GPA is a better measurement because it provides a greater insight into the relative level of performance of individuals and different group of students.

Academic performance is the extent to which a student has achieved their short or long-term educational goals (Ward, Stoker, & Murray-Ward 1996). Cumulative GPA and completion of educational degrees such as High School and bachelor’s degrees represent academic performance.

Academic performance is commonly measured through examinations or continuous assessments but there is no general agreement on how it is best evaluated or which aspects are most important — procedural knowledge such as skills or declarative knowledge such as facts (Bhagat 2013) . Furthermore, there are inconclusive results over which individual factors successfully predict academic performance, elements such as test anxiety, environment, motivation, and emotions require consideration when developing models of school performance (Mosche, 1998). But individual differences in academic performance have been linked to differences in intelligence and personality (Sophie, Benedikt, & Tomas 2011). Students with higher mental ability as demonstrated by IQ tests and those who are higher in conscientiousness (linked to effort and achievement motivation) tend to achieve highly in academic settings. A recent meta-analysis suggested that mental curiosity (as measured by typical intellectual engagement) has an important influence on academic achievement in addition to intelligence and conscientiousness (Sophie, Benedikt, & Tomas 2011). Cognitive factors or learning factors are the extent to which a person’s individual capabilities can influence their academic or learning performance. These factors include cognitive functions like attention, memory, and reasoning. Undergraduate students with high academic performance present mature learning beliefs, and a strong knowledge integration (Brenda Ann Marie 2014). Research has also found that students with higher academic performance, motivation and persistence use intrinsic goals rather than extrinsic ones (Leslie & Ingrid 2013). Furthermore, students who are motivated to improve upon their previous or upcoming performance tend to perform better academically than peers with lower motivation (Barry, & Rhonda 2011). In other words, students with higher need for achievement have greater academic performance.

          As noted earlier, research showed that there are also non-cognitive factors, personality for example responsible for high academic performance. Personality is now a relevant factor studied in relationship with academic performance. For some researchers another major factor that is believed to be responsible for academic performance in students is their personality traits.

There is some evidence that personality intricately tied with individual differences in learning styles, and it is recommended that educators go beyond the current emphasis on cognition and include this variables (type A and type B personalities) in understanding academic behaviour (Komarraju, Karau, Schmeck, & Alen 2011).

Personality is the sum total of the behavioural and mental characteristics that are distinctive of an individual (Colamn, 2009). It refers to individuals’ unique and relatively stable patterns of behaviour, thoughts and feelings (Baron, 2006). The nature of individuals varies, the personality of the individuals too varies and this is the law of nature and this varying nature has a tremendous impact on making life a success or a failure, including the life of the students.

Academic performance criteria differ substantially and may have conflicting relationships with the independent variable, personality types (Trapmann et al., 2007, Clark and Schroth, 2010; Komarraju & Karau, 2005). Extraversion (type A personality) and introversion (type B personality) factors may relate in different ways to performance, given different aspects of it (Komarraju & Karau, 2005). Extraversion-Introversion (EI) represents the process through which a person is energized. Is the individual’s primary interest in the outer world of people and things or the inner world of ideas and concepts?

The multitude of individuals’ personality may be classified as introverts and extroverts, a classification originally made by Carl Jung, and reinforced by Eysenck. Although Eyesenck believes that the concepts of Introversion-Extroversion did not originate in Jung but had a 2000 years history in Philosophy and Medicine of Hippocrates and Galden that combined Biological Constitution and Psychology (Dandapandi, 2006). The theory of person-situation interaction predicts that the extrovert will adapt best when he is asked to collaborate with others and that the introvert will adapt best when she is asked to carry out tasks independently (Santrock, 2006). Extroverted individuals are outgoing, sociable and assertive; introverts are quiet and shy (Robbins, 2005). Extraverts prefer to be in the company of others while the introverts in being alone or with a chosen few. John Bearden places ‘extroversion and introversion’ as the first dimension, considering its significance and value.

Empirical studies confirm that personality contributes to personal achievement to at least some degree in education (e.g. Neuenschwander et al., 2013, Laidra et al., 2007), to decisions about the choice of academic major and profession (e.g. Borges & Gibson, 2005, Cano & Garton, 1994, Hartung et al., 2005, Dunning, 2001, Hinton & Stockburger, 1991, Sears et al., 1997, Ditiberio & Hammer, 1993, Borges & Savickas, 2002), to performance in vocational, professional and higher education (e.g. Borg & Shapiro, 1996, Borg & Stranahan, 2002a, Borg & Stranahan, 2002b, Ziegert, 2000, Ditiberio & Hammer, 1993).

The present study is aimed at studying the influence of personality type on academic performance of students. The study would yield findings, based on which academic performance of students could be improved in tune with their personality types as ‘research is directed towards the solution of a problem (Best & Kahn, 2001).

Personality can be defined as organized patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviors. It is consistency in a person’s way of being, that is his particular ways of perceiving, thinking, acting and reacting as a person (Hofstee, & Willem, 1994)  accounted for this negative relationship; in other words, highly extroverted students are more likely to spend their time on social and extra-curricular activities in comparison to less extroverted students.

Some studies have indicated that academic performance is positively associated with extroversion (Laidra et al. 2007; Lounsbury et al. 2003a). According to Duckworth and Seligman (2005) extroversion is one of the Personality factors having the most interesting relationship with academic performance. Although Melissa, Sampo & Panonon (2007) found a negative relationship between these two variables, Chomoro & Furnham (2003a) reporting the reverse. Based on previous studies, Dunsmore (2005) relates higher levels of extroversion to higher academic performance among students (especially at lower academic levels), and to lower academic performance at higher educational levels. Such model of results might reflect transition from informal, interactional and class-oriented environment at elementary schools to a more academic, study-oriented and knowledge-based environment at high schools and college settings. Furnham, Zhang, & Chamoro, (2006) found a negative relationship between extroversion and achievement at higher education; they believed students’ interpersonal as well as intrapersonal skills accounted for this negative relationship; in other words, highly extroverted students are more likely to spend their time on social and extra-curricular activities in comparison to less extroverted students.

Although results of studies trying to predict academic performance have yielded different results, they have consistently pointed out the role of personality characteristics in academic performance (Paunonen & Ashton, 2001). Educators have always asked whether people’s personality characteristics can help them attain higher academic achievement.

          Elements of personality type can influence outcomes on aptitude tests, which measure a student’s ability to learn (ie, future performance), as well as achievement tests, which identify what a student has learned. The correlation with the overall grade of the final academic year reveals that there is no significant relationship between extraversion and the performance during the entire final academic year. Hence, the relationship between extraversion and academic performance is controversial. Several studies have concluded that there is no reason to talk about a relationship between extraversion and academic performance (Heaven, Mak, Barry & Ciarrochi 2002; Ackerman & Heggestad 1997). Others suggest that extraversion is not clearly linked with academic performance or whether the correlation between these two variables is positive or negative. Studies have found both positive and negative correlations between this personality factors and academic performance. The inconsistency of extraversion can be explained by two ideas. First, extraversion can be a predictor of high academic performance because extraverts are more active, ask more questions, which can help them learn more effectively (Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham 2005). Secondly, extraverts often have an active social life, and this can interfere with activities devoted to studying because the time spent for learning or documentation is reduced. For this reason, extraverts tend to have a higher number of absences in school. Introverts, by failing emphasis on socialization, have more time for themselves, time they can spend on studying (Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham 2003, 2005]).

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The problem of underperformance/achievement has assumed a worrisome dimension in the Nigerian educational system. Desperate to make it anyhow, students have devised various illegal means to succeed in examinations, and academic activities even when they are not academically competent. And unfortunately, the system has buckled under the pressure. Examination malpractice has risen steadily to become a seemingly untameable monster. It is increasingly becoming difficult to equate competence of people with supposed academic performance as represented in their certificates. Many candidates are unable to defend the result they supposedly acquired honourably. And of course this has consistently led to inability to compete effectively in the job market which has become a serious issue. Several factors have been researched into in the past as to the cause of this social malaise, but there seem to be indications that some hidden factors may be responsible that needs unravelling. This desire to see this problem curbed gave rise to this study and the researchers’ aim is to see if there is a way in which the personality traits can help, especially from the perspective of the analytical and scientific approach of measurement and evaluation. The researcher has consequently chosen to explore this problem among the students. Academic performance among students has become crucial and can be very beneficial in career pursuit after school as well in repositioning the life of students. Over there have been stories of Nigerian students who performed excellently in various disciplines. But the percentage of these excellent performing students is still far compared to the teeming population of students in our country. Hence, one could imagine if these excellent students are of different personality. Therefore, the present study is aimed at examining the impact of personality traits on academic performance of students.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the study is to find out whether; extrovert personality type and introvert personality type will significantly impact on academic performance of students.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

Personality: This is defined in this study as the combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual’s distinctive character which can be extroverted or introverted as measured by type A behaviour scale developed by (Omoluabi 1997).
Academic Performance: This is operationalized as the extent to which a student has achieved in his/her educational goals for the period of the study as indicated by the student’s cumulative grade point.

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The IMPACT OF PARENT CHILD RELATIONSHIP AND PARENTING STYLES ON ACADEMIC ENGAGEMENT OF ADOLESCENCE

The IMPACT OF PARENT CHILD RELATIONSHIP AND PARENTING STYLES ON ACADEMIC ENGAGEMENT OF ADOLESCENCE

ABSTRACT

This study examined impact parent-child relationship (warmth) and parenting styles on academic engagement among adolescence in Enugu East local government area of Enugu state using 475 participants from four randomly selected secondary schools in Enugu East local government of Enugu state (2 single sex schools- St. Patrick College, Emene and Trans-Ekulu Girls Secondary School; and 2 mixed sex schools- Model Ideal College Abakpa and Godfrey Okoye Secondary School, Thinkers’ Corner). A total of one hundred and fifty (150) copies of the instrument were administered to systematically randomly selected SS 1 & 2 students of each of the four schools the participants (191 Males and 284 Females) were aged between 13 years and 21 years with a mean age of 15.93 years and a standard deviation of 1.22. Parenting Style Inventory II (PSI-II); Parental Warmth Scale and Student Engagement Scale (SES) were used to collect data for the study.  Multiple Regression analysis was used to test the hypotheses via the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS v23).The result of this study does not support the null hypothesis since parent-child relationship (warmth) made a statistically significant positive contribution in predicting academic engagement .The result of this study support the null hypothesis because responsiveness did not make statistically significant contribution in predicting academic engagement. The result of this study support the null hypothesis for the reason that autonomy did not make statistically significant contribution in predicting academic engagement .The result of this study does not support the null hypothesis since demandingness made a statistically significant positive contribution in predicting academic engagement. Among the three dimensions of parenting styles, only demandingness made a statistically significant positive contribution in predicting academic engagement.

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

The Adolescence is a fascinating stage of development full of many physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes. To Blackwell, Trzesniewski, Kali and Dweck (2007), this stage or period is sensitive and a critical time with important implications for school achievement. Also, the increase in academic demands and the complexity of the school structure make the task of academic success for adolescents even more difficult (Patrikakou, 2004).
Achievement is almost the most important issue for adolescents in education in any country and this is why many key people ranging from educators to psychologists and to sociologists have focused research attention and efforts towards identifying the reasons why some students perform well academically while others fail and drop out. Recently, nations such as Canada, has noted an increase in children with risk factors that may compromise their present achievement and future success, and approximately 27.6% or 1 in 4 students is considered to be at risk for school failure (Jordan, 2006). Belfield (2007) also found out that across the 21.9 million adults in California, 2.19 million males and 1.96 million females (20% of the students) were dropouts. Ghasemi (2010) in a study found that 22% of the students in Iran suffer from low academic achievement due to family problems and personal factors.
Besides factors such as parental, school, teacher and environmental factors; personal factors such as self-efficacy, engagement in academic work and personality also have significant positive relationships with adolescent’s academic achievement (Multon, Brown, & Lent, 1991; Fredrik, Blumenfield, & Paris, 2004). Among these personal factors is the main variable of consideration in this study which is academic engagement which is really emphatic among the contributing personal factors to academic achievement and personal development of adolescent students in schools. Such engagement can be described as the level of commitment and involvement or the amount of time, energy and effort that students put into their educational learning activities (Stewart, 2007).
Researchers have recently used the term engagement to refer to the extent to which students identifywith and value schooling outcomes, and participate in academic and non-academic school activities (Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD), 2003). The definition of engagement usually comprises a psychological component pertaining to students’ sense of belonging at school and acceptance of school values, and a behavioural component pertaining to participation in school activities (Finn, 1993; Finn & Rock, 1997; Goodenow, 1993; Goodenow & Grady, 1993; Wehlage, Rutter, Smith, Lesko, & Fernandez, 1989). The psychological component emphasizes students’ sense of belonging or attachment to school, which has to do with feelings of being accepted and valued by their peers, and by others at their school (OECD, 2003). Another aspect of the psychological component concerns whether or not students value school success – whether they believe that education will benefit them personally and economically (Johnson et al., 2001). Students who do not feel they belong at school, or reject school values, are often referred to as alienated or disaffected. The participation component of engagement is characterised by factors such as school and class attendance, being prepared for class, completing homework, attending lessons, and being involved in extra-curricular sports or hobby clubs (OECD, 2003).
Academic engagement in the words of Willms (2003) entail investing quality time and energy by students in educationally purposeful activities and being persistent in the pursuitof academic success; it is an indicator that combine academic identification (getting along with teachers, having an interest in the subject matter and related behaviours and attitudes) and academic participation (students work effort both inside and outside of school including hours spent on homework, meeting deadlines and not skipping classes). Taylor & Lundy (2016) refers to academic engagement as the degree of attention, curiosity, interest, optimism and passion that students show when they are learning or being taught, which extends to their level of motivation and progress in education.Svanum and Biggatti (2009) points out that a student is academically engaged when the said student takes advantage of learning opportunities provided by their institution both inside and outside the classroom and involves course related activities such as class attendance and completion of assignment. In line with the foregoing, Horstmanshoff and Zimitat (2011)defined academic engagement in terms of university students as a measure of student’s involvement with university studies.
Academic engagement involves cognitive functions and self-regulatory strategies to pursue learning task (Butler, 2011); therefore, it involves all actions students undertake to enhance their learning. It emphasizes students various pattern of motivation, cognition and behaviour (Baron &Corbin, 2012). It is therefore, a behavioral, emotional and attitudinal involvement in learning and is concerned with concentration, effort and persistency in academic related activities.
Academic engagement improves students’ inquisitiveness, level of motivation and consequently progress in academic endeavors, (Stephens, 2015) and to a great extent may determineoutcomes such as graduation. It aims at increasing successful student achievement levels and in understanding students’ positive development (Appleton, Christenson & furlong, 2008). Hence, it has grown in popularity recently probably as a result of increased understanding of the role it plays in learning process and social development (Fredrick et al, 2004). The concept typically arises when educators discuss educational strategies and teaching techniques that address developmental, intellectual, emotional, behavioural, physical and social factors that either enhance or undermine learning for students (Parsons, 2011).Educators may hold different views on students’ academic engagement for instance, observable behaviours such as attending class, listening attentively, participating in discussions, turning in work on time and following rules and directions may be perceived as forms of academic engagement by some educators while others relate academic engagement to internal states such as enthusiasm, motivation or interest.
Academic engagement is predicated on the belief that learning improves when students are inquisitive, interested or inspired and that learning tends to suffer when students are bored, dispassionate or otherwise “disengaged”, (Fredrick et al, 2004). Hence, it seems to play positively significant role in undergraduates’ ability to benefit from academic experiences and consequently achieve academic success. Among identified factors that are related to academic engagement are gender, race/ethnicity, students’ major, parental involvement, educational institution and contact with different people (Jonson, Crosnoe & Elder 2001; Taylor & Francis 2010; Pasquae & Murphy 2005).
The present study examined the impactof parent-child relationship and parenting style on academic engagement of adolescents in Enugu east local government of Enugu state. Research have shown that children of involved parents who participate in their children’s education, have higher standardized test scores and more academic aspirations (Bondioli, 2000; Hill, Castellino, Lansford, Nowlin, Dodge, Bates, & Pettit, 2004).
Consequent upon the large body of work demonstrating a connection between parenting practices/styles and school achievement, studies are accumulating which suggest that one pathway through which parenting has an impact on children’s school performance is by shaping children’s classroom engagement, intrinsic motivation, preference for challenge, valuing and commitment to school, and enthusiasm, enjoyment, and interest in schoolwork (Epstein & Sanders, 2002; Jeynes, 2007; Pomerantz, Grolnick, & Price, 2005).
Darling & Steinberg (1993) define parenting style as “a constellation of attitudes toward the child that are communicated to the child and that, taken together, create an emotional climate in which the parents’ behaviors are expressed”. One of the most studied approaches to understanding parental influences on human development is concept of parenting style (Baumrind, 1967). Baumrind proposed parenting styles as correlates to socialization of the children (Shyny, 2017). Afterwards, many researches recognized the importance of researching role of parenting style in child development (Kordi, 2010; Schaffer, Clark & Jeglic, 2009; Lim & Lim, 2003). Many of the studies followed three parenting styles originally proposed by Baumrind namely authoritative parenting, authoritarian parenting and permissive parenting, though in 1971, Baumrind added negligent parenting (Shyny, 2017). Baumrind grouped parents to three (or four) parenting styles according to their child rearing patterns, on the basis of her interviews with parents and children.
Shyny (2017) opined that “there is a growing interest in the role of parenting in a person’s affective and social characteristics. The attention of educational researchers on the parenting styles and their effects on school relevant developmental outcomes are also on the rise. Several studies found that parenting style or parental behaviour has statistically significant relation with developmental outcomes like performance, achievement strategies, self-regulated learning, achievement goals, self-efficacy and wellbeing of students”. Academic or school engagement no doubt fall as component part of these factors, hence, a connection of parenting styles and students’ academic/school engagement.
Furrer and Skinner (2003) have in the past examined sense of relatedness (i.e., patterns of relationships with certain social partners such as parents, peers etc.) for its role in student engagement and subsequent academic performance. In this study, they specifically examined the following relationships: (a) the association between relatedness and classroom engagement and performance; (b) the role of parents, teachers, and peers on engagement; (c) the influence of age and gender on the relation between relatedness and engagement; and (d) the level of engagement associated with different relatedness profiles (i.e., patterns of relationships with certain social partners). Results suggested that student- and teacher-reported levels of student behavioral and emotional engagement each mediated the relationship between aggregated relatedness (across parents, teachers, and peers) and student grades. Moreover, student-reported relatedness to parents, peers, and teachers significantly predicted both student- and teacher-reported student engagement beyond student-reported perceived control at one point in time and also across the school year from fall to spring (Furrer & Skinner, 2003). Student feelings of relatedness overlapped moderately across partners (parents, peers, and teachers), yet relatedness with each partner was uniquely important in predicting engagement.
MacDonald (1992) considers warmth as a main component of an adaptive parent-child relationship, and refers to emotional nurturance and affectionate care giving expressed from a parental figure to the child. MacDonald also concluded that warmth and affection in the family evolved as an independent system of motivation, which was distinct from the process of attachment that prevents harm or loss. Thus rather than simply a behavioural contingency system at play, warmth, then, provides positive social reward that drives parent and child behaviour over the course of their relationship (MacDonald, 1992).

Statement of Problem
According to OECD(2003), school is central to the daily life of many youths in that they view schooling as essential to their long-term wellbeing, and this attitude is reflected in their participation in academic and non-academic pursuits; and they tend to have good relations with school staff and with other students – they feel that they belong at school. However, some youths do not share this sense of belonging, and do not believe that academicsuccess will have a strong bearing on their future. These feelings and attitudes may result in their becomingdisaffected from school (Finn, 1989; Jenkins, 1995). They may gradually withdraw from school activities,and in some cases participate in disruptive behaviour and display negative attitudes towards teachers andother students (OECD, 2003). These students who have become disaffected from school tend to create one of the biggestchallenges for teachers and school administrators as they try to meet their need to be fully engaged in school.
Despite the highimportance of students’ academic engagement as one of the key factors that determine academic achievement and the problem disengagement in school create for the student, the school and society at large, some students are still found in lapse engaging academically. Academic engagement has long been found as a critical factor in shaping college outcomes (Gasiewski, 2012). Despite the need, findings still indicates that students find it difficult to engage academically (Trawler 2010; Perkmann 2013). This problem of students’ difficulty engaging academically makes research on factors influencing academic engagement to remain an important research question.
Studies have been carried out to determine factors that influence academic engagement, (Jonson, Crosnoe & Elder 2001; Talor & Francis 2010; Pasquae & Murphy 2005; Granville & Dika, 2002; Fredricks & Blumenfeld, 2004) but not much of these studies have been done to see the impact of parent-child relationship and styles of parenting. Also, enough has not been done in Nigeria especially in the south-east in regards to this context, hence a gap in knowledge. This study therefore, will seek to fill some gap in knowledge by examining the impact of parent-child relationship and parenting style on academic engagement of adolescent students in secondary schools in Enugu East Local Government.

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of parent-child relationship and parenting style on academic engagement of adolescent students in secondary schools in Enugu East local government. Specifically, the study would seek to determine whether:
1. Parent-child relationship would have impact on academic engagement of adolescent students in secondary schools in Enugu East Local Government.
2. Responsiveness parenting styles would have impact on academic engagement of adolescent students in secondary schools in Enugu East Local Government.
3. Autonomy granting parenting styles would have impact on academic engagement of adolescent students in secondary schools in Enugu East Local Government.
4. Demandingness parenting styles would have impact on academic engagement of adolescent students in secondary schools in Enugu East Local Government.

Operational Definition of Key Variables
Academic Engagement: Students’ investment in and commitment to learning, belonging and identification at school, and participation in the institution environment and initiation of activities to achieve educational goals as measured using the 31 item Student Engagement Scale (SES) byDoğan (2014).
Parent-Child Relationship: The unique and enduring bond between a parent or caregiver and his or her child measured using the Parental Warmth Scale from Child Parental Acceptance-Rejection/Control Questionnaire (PARQ/Control; Rohner & Khaleque, 2005). The mean warmth received by each participant from both parents represents his/her parental warmth score.
Parenting Style: This is a collection of attitudes towards the child that are communicated to the child and that, taken together, create an emotional climate in which the parents’ behaviors are expressed. Parenting style in this study is measured using Parenting Style Inventory II (PSI-II) by Darling and Toyokawa (1997) based on the three parenting style dimension of demandingness, responsiveness and autonomy granting. The mean score for each of the three dimensions from both parents represents each participant’s parenting style score.

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THE IMPACT OF POOR FUNDING ON PUBLIC LIBRARIES IN NIGERIA

THE IMPACT OF POOR FUNDING ON PUBLIC LIBRARIES IN NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

The study was carried out to determine the impact of poor funding on public libraries in Nigeria using the Edo State Library Board as a case study. Survey research method was employed for the study. Also, total enumeration sampling technique was used due to the small population size. Thirteen (13) respondents made up the population size of the survey. The questionnaire was the instrument used for data collection. Frequency table and percentage were used to analyze the data collected. The study revealed the alternatively sources for funding the public library. Findings showed that there is inadequate fund to acquire relevant up to date materials, hence some recommendations were made. These include; the people of the state should be made to understand that the public libraries are theirs and such should help in financing them. This amongst other recommendations was made.

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background of the Study      

The public library is a social institution, which is tied to the political and social realities of the communities where it is situated. As the name implies, this is a library that served the public.

UNESCO (2012) Defines public library as a local centre of information, making all kind of knowledge available to users. The services of the public library are provided on the basis of access for all regarded of age race sex religion nationality or social status. Specific services and materials must be provided for those who can not for whatever reason use the regular services and materials. In age groups most fined materials relevant to their needs. High quality and relevant to local needs and conditions are fundamental. Material must reflects current trend and evolutions of the societies as were as the memory of human endeavors and imagination. Collection and services are not subjected to any form of ideological, political or religious censorship or commercial pressure.     

According to the oxford dictionary, public library is a non-profit library established for use of the general public and maintained drifty by public funds.

Public library has been defined variously by different individuals. Many see it as a place built for the inflection of books and other printed resources and the personal to provide and interpret such resources as required to meet the information, research, educational, recreational, cultural and aesthetic needs of the various users and it is usually financed with public funds. The public library’s clientele is heterogeneous and devoid of race, rank, status, bias as to who would avail of its services. It stocks every conceivable item that would add knowledge education, research, information and cultural needs to the society. In Nigeria today. Each of the 36 states including the FCT, Abuja has a public library board established under the public library act as United Kingdom (UK), but here in Nigeria, library board a state is established by edict or laws made by the state legislators.

Public library funding refers to making money available for the day to day running of the libraries. Finance is the live-wire of any established including land, labour, capital and entrepreneur and information. The capital here refers to finance which can be used to procure other factors of production thereby making it more important than others. Fund is obviously the major element in every established. It is equally the working capital of an establishment.

Public library funding generally means the various ways we derive the expected funds for capital and recurrent expenses. It involves the money available or allocation to for running its day-to-day activities. However, the funding and financial allocations to public libraries have remained poor decodes. Public libraries need adequate resources to run their services, pay and hire personnel, provide current information, arrange organize and monitor both human and material resources. Nigeria is a developing country and its society is not a reading society. Nigerians do not appreciate the importance and needs of public libraries and the services it offers and this problem reflects in the level of fund allocated to it by the government state government subventions which constitute about 80% of public libraries funds is grossly inadequate. This inadequacy is because of the political instability and bas economy of the country.

Late release of fund by the government is another problem; it means things cannot be done when required. All the plans of public library are hampered by late release of fund. Another problem is the existing infrastructural facilities in most public libraries are inadequate. Most of their reference materials are too old. There are no separate rooms for music library and audio-visual materials, and no rooms for serious library and audio-visual materials, and no rooms for serious readers, especially those carrying out research works. Lack of appreciation by policy makers in government is one of the problems. This shows that the public libraries in the nation are not given recognition and this is traceable not only to the non-quantifiable nature of library services but also the misconception given to libraries by government to get off these problems. There must be a re-orientation on the part of the policy makers in government to accord the public library the recognition it deserves. The problems have adversely affected the public library services and its operations. The result of the impending global economic situation on the other hands has drastically affected the attainment or achievement of basic standards in funding the libraries. From the history of public libraries in Nigeria, the problem of funds has remained an untraceable phenomenon. The Nigeria library association is worried by the poor funding of libraries in general but public libraries in particular. Therefore, the Nigerian libraries Association (NLA) has organized several conferences that highlight the problems of poor funding of public libraries and the need for improved funding. This conference suggested and recommended widening the sources of funding public libraries rather than solely depending on the government.    

1.1.1      Historical Background of Edo State Libraries Board, Benin-City   

Edo state at a point was the proud owner of some of the best library facilities in the country to the extent that people came from far and near for research work. The libraries in the then Midwest region and later Bendel state were built during the military administration of Brigadier-General Samuel Ogbemudia. Then there was at least a government library in every local government headquarters. The library system so flourished that it even pride itself of having a will library which was explored by legal luminaries and wealthy persons who did not want to create acrimony for their children when they depart the earth.

For years, the Edo state library was a board of its own and was run as an independent body until it was merged with the ministry of education under the supervision of the commissioner of education. The state of the library began to deteriorate in the late 90’s when the military administration of the state group captain Baba Lyiam insisted that all government agencies should be self-sustaining. Students and others were made to pay stipends before they could use the library. The no funding policy of that administration led to the deterioration of the public library as workers made do with the few available books, and no attention was further paid to library facilities.  

However, since 1999 when the country returned to the civilian rule, the library board has suffered poor funding even though it blossomed during the time of Ogbemudia, it deteriorated during the time of the military. At a time in Edo state, the public library was a bee hive of activities, but it is no longer so and this has led to the drop in the reading habits of the youths.

1.2       Statement of the Problem

In many public libraries, the budgetary allocation are not released as and when due, and this in turn delays the implementation of the programs of those libraries when the funds are eventually released. There is inadequate funding of public libraries by the state government which provides about 80% of the funds required by the public libraries. Shortage of funds have resulted in shortage of relevant text books as currently being experienced by students and researchers who are I need of the materials. Inadequate provision of funds has prevented the provision of current material needs by the staff and client in public libraries. Also, poor appreciation of the services of the library by those at the helm of affairs, how societal rating of the libraries especially public libraries in Nigeria pose a problem to funding of the public libraries.

1.3       Research Questions

  1. What is the major source of fund for public library?
  2. What is the state of funding in public libraries?
  3. Are the public libraries facing any problems?
  4. What are the problems faced by public libraries in Nigeria especially Edo state library Board, Benin city?
  5. What are the other sources of fund available to these public libraries?
  6. What are the problems associated with inadequate funding of libraries in Nigeria?

1.4       Scope of the Study

The scope and literature of this study will enable us to know the funding of public libraries in Nigeria, especially Edo state library board. The investigation is limited to Nigeria and only one type of library which is the public library. Only the staff and users of Edo state library board and other public libraries are to be consulted in the course of this investigation.

1.5       Significance of the Study

This study will enable us to know the state of public libraries in Nigeria that is the problem facing public libraries in Nigeria. It will also be of importance to the researcher or any other person who is interested in finding out the state of public libraries in Nigeria, especially Edo state library board, Benin City. It will also help us to appreciate the public library as an agent of political social and religious development of a community which can compel them into passing he right judgment and taking the right decision that affects their lives and existence. The topic as expected will be an added literature in this branch of public librarianship.

1.6       Operational Definition of Terms

  1. Subvention: – a subsidy, provision of financial or other support.
  2. Clientele: – the body or class of people who frequent an establishment or purchase a services.
  3. Heterogeneous: – diverse in kind or nature, composed of different parts.
  4. Library: – on institution which holds books and/or forms of stored information for use by the public or qualified people.
  5. Research: – diligent inquiry or examination to seek or revise facts principles, theories, applications, etc.

 

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