Tag Archives: Participation

INSTRUMENT FOR SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

THE IMPACT OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AS AN INSTRUMENT FOR SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN KUDAN LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF KADUNA STATE

ABSTRACT

This research titled “The Impact of Community Development as an Instrument for Socio-Economic Development in Kudan Local Government Area of Kaduna State”. Two research objectives were raised and one null and alternative hypotheses were formulated. The research objectives are to determine the relevance of community development projects and programmes on socio-economic development and examine the impacts of community participation on socio-economic development in Kudan Local Government Area of Kaduna State. The sample size was 399 respondents selected from the population of 138,992 based on 2906 census, using Taro Yamane Formula. Out of 399 questionnaires distributed to the respondents, only 299 were found valid. The research made use of both primary and secondary sources of gathering information. The simple percentage was used to analyze respondents’ opinions. The research findings revealed that community development projects and programmes have a great positive effect on communities and have stimulated socio-economic development in Kudan Local Government Area of Kaduna State and that projects and programmes carried out with the community people’s effort and support are serving the purpose which they are created for because of the feeling of ownership of the projects and programmes by benefiting communities. Based on the findings, conclusion was drawn and recommendations given that: Communities should be aware that developmental projects embarked upon by themselves through self-help projects, government or external bodies are meant for their overall wellbeing and as such should protect and ensure that they are maintained to continue to serve the purpose which they are created; Governments at all levels need to encourage the communities to partake fully in all issues concerning their development, morally, financially or otherwise. The local governments in Nigeria should provide enabling environment to communities to initiate, plan and execute projects that will be beneficial to them.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background of the Study

Community development is not a creation of modern times; it is as old as mankind when the family was the central focus of any activity. Community development is an age long movement that has been in practice in various communities even before the advent of colonialism. Before colonization, leadership was rooted in the culture and tradition of various the people and decision making was part and parcel of rural development. Rural development has always been equated to community development from immemorial to date; the two words are used interchangeably, Chukwuezi (2000) and Cavaye (2000), had lent their supports when they wrote that all rural development are equally community development. This assisted largely in mobilization of people for developmental activities.

The argument has been that since the vast majority of Nigerians of over 80% reside in rural areas, Human Development Report, in Cavaye (2000), there would not be social welfare without rural areas transformation and development so that the rural people share in the social amenities and other facets of economic, social and political life of the country.

Historically, the notion of community development owes a great deal to the efforts of colonial administrators. Hence after the Second World War, the British Colonial Office became concern with ‘community development. Mayo in Cavaye (2000) suggests that administrators invented the term out of their attempts to develop ‘basic education’ and social welfare in the UK colonies. For example, a 1944 report, Mass education in the colonies, placed an emphasis on literacy training and advocated the promotion of agriculture, health and other social services through local self-help (Midgley in Ugwu 2009).The importance of community development in contemporary Nigeria cannot be over emphasized as its significance stems from its recognized role in the process of achieving the improvement of the economic, political, social and cultural conditions of communities.

As an instrument, “Community development ensures rapid national development. Ugwu (2009) asserts that community development is one of the major planks upon which National Developmental policies and their implementation are hinged. This is why the group dynamic perspective of community development becomes imperative, especially as issues concerning community development with special emphasis on self-help approach tend to rely on the “felt-needs theory” and the traditional participatory democratic theory. These theories are indicative of the place of people’s participation in development. Some community development programs that were put in place by Federal, State and Local Government include the poverty alleviation program, National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy, having their versions in State and Local Government respectively.

Community development has become a national importance in Nigeria. Flora and Flora in Emeh, Eluwa and Ukah(2012) argue that community development combines the idea of ‘Community’ with ‘Development’ hence the concept of community development relies on interaction between people and joint action, rather than individual activity- what some sociologists call “Collective Agency”. Christenson (1999) sees Development to involve change, improvement and vitality; a direct attempt to improve participation flexibility, equity, attitude, the function of institutions and the quality of life. It leads to a net addition to community assets.

Nigerian government policies of development such as Department of Food, Road and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP), National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS) are to be concerned especially with rural development in two major aspects. The first is the recognition of the people as the center of development. The second is the need to build strongly on existing social, cultural, political and economic foundations from the Federal, State and Local. Governmental policies on rural development can only succeed if the people especially in Kudan Local Government adopt these policies and participate actively and massively in their implementations. Such substantial participation and sustained interest can only be achieved through community development efforts of the people and in direct consonance with the people’s social, cultural, and religious values (Jones cited in Obetta and Charity, 2012).

It is generally accepted that self-sustained community development is vital to the economic and social progress of any developing nation like Nigeria. Larger percentage of the nation’s population lives in the rural communities which serve as the basis for the production of food and engage in primary activities that are supposed to form the foundation of any economic development for the country. Despite its importance, the rural areas lack basic amenities such as potable water, electricity, health facilities and motor able feeder roads. The rural people have low purchasing power and standard of living. While agriculture is the dominant economic activity, the tax base is limited. So rural areas are rarely able to mobilize sufficient resources to finance development projects. The prevailing situations in rural areas have been poverty, deprivation, lack of basic amenities, services and lack of opportunities for advancement.

To overcome these obstacles to rural development, a systematic policy of mobilization of the rural people in the development perspectives is necessary. This focuses on the active involvement of people in the issues which affect their lives; and encourage participation, empowerment, self-help and the sharing of skills, knowledge and experience (Jones cited in Cavaye, 2000). Mobilization is required to facilitate implementation of carefully planned programmes and to establish partnership between the government and the people in carrying out development programmes and projects. This can be achieved if community development has been taken seriously as it deserves. Community development is people’s oriented development and a catalyst for socio-economic development.

Community development is an instrument or approach for improvement that is directed towards a specific field of social development requiring action on the part of the people to improve their condition of living, whether social, economic or cultural. Its effect in the field of social development is socially conditioned, since it brings about awareness and the improvement of relationships between individuals, groups, communities and organizations to ensure a sustained development. In this light, from a humanitarian perspective, it may be seen as a search for community, mutual aid, social support and human liberation in an alienating, oppressive, competitive and individualistic society. In its more pragmatic institutional sense, it may be viewed as a means for mobilizing communities to join state or institutional initiatives that are aimed at alleviating poverty, solving social problems, strengthening families, fostering democracy and achieving modernization and socio-economic development (Campfens cited in Ohiani, 2006).Therefore, attempt is made to justify community development as an instrument for socio-economic development, with particular reference to Kudan Local Government Area of Kaduna State.

1.2     Statement of the Problem

It is important to recognize that most of the challenges of development in Nigeria are a clear manifestation of the weakness in the strategies adopted by the government, from Federal, State, and Local Government. Most of the development strategies adopted by government are mostly those that are top-down in their approaches. For example, the development programmes to empower the people or enhance community development from time, such as DFRRI, NAPEP NEEDS with state and local versions are all not people friendly, since the people were not involved or carried along. This makes community development to suffer and thereby frustrating socio-economic development. This is because the input from the people was not included, despite the fact that the development was targeted at them (Obetta and Charity, 2012).

The people lacked sense of belonging to any of government projects or programmes, they never felt as if they were part of the development effort of their communities, which affected the maintenance of those projects, leading to the problem of not sustaining those facilities or programmes put in place to serve the people. In some communities in Kudan Local Government of Kaduna State, like any other communities within the country, there are projects initiated and implemented by the government that are no longer serving the purpose which they were meant for because the community’s inputs were neglected. For example the solar boreholes of Ungwan Galadima ward, the solar borehole in Ungwan Duste Ward worked for only a year and are no longer functioning. Also in Sabon Lemu community, about seven boreholes were sunk by the L.G. only the one in front of the house of a member of house of representative representing the constituency is functioning. Most of government projects and programmes provided by government within the local government area are not properly maintained, thereby leading to problem of sustainability.

It is mostly a top-down approach to community development, which makes projects and programs unsocio-economic due to misplaced priorities, as to what the people need, is not what is given to them, but what the donors feel they need.

It is against this background that the study explores how, and what model to be used for community development to serve as a veritable instrument for socio-economic development in Kudan Local Government Area of Kaduna State.

1.3     Objectives of the Study

The major objective of this study is to examine how community development can serve as a viable instrument for socio-economic development in Kudan Local Government Area, Kaduna State from 2015 to 2019.

The specific objectives of this study are to:

  1. Determine the relevance of community development projects and programmes on socio-economic development in Kudan Local Government Area;
  2. Examine the impacts of community participation on socio-economic development in Kudan Local Government Area Kaduna State.

1.4       Research Hypothesis

A set of assumptions of speculation which in tentatively accepted as the basic for an investigation. Hypothesis are testable statements about the relationships between variables. They are meant to be tested statistically and accepted or rejected on the basis of the findings which arise from the study. The hypotheses to be tested in the project are:

H1: Community Development Projects and Programmes to a greater extent lead to Socio-Economic Development in Kudan Local Government Area of Kaduna State.

H0: Community Development Projects and Programmes to a greater extent do not lead to Socio-Economic Development in Kudan Local Government Area of Kaduna State.

1.5     Significance of the Study

Although the research is carried out to fulfill an academic requirement, it will also go beyond that scope encouraging more meaningful and conscious development efforts on the part of Community people. Previous studies on development have often laid emphasis on Community development as one among numerous instruments employed by government for development, not paying attention as to whether the development is socio-economic or not, and what are those salient issues in Community development that will ensure socio-economic development.

Therefore, the study laid emphasis on the issue of community development in a participatory manner, Jumare and Mohammed (2012), in a study on the effort of community development in socio-economic development concluded that, most common of the problems of socio-economic development is the problem of poor participation of beneficiaries of the development. With the mode of collaborative and collective action by the people and the government. The collaborative mode of community development postulated that local people work together with outsiders to determine priorities, responsibility remains with outsiders for directing the process. While the collective action mode postulate that local people set the agenda and mobilize to carryout, utilizing outsiders not as initiators or facilitators, but as required by local people. This mostly is done in projects or programmes that require quick action to be taken Nicole (2002). This study is in line with the above scholars, with a paramount significance of filling the gap that most researches in the field of Community Development are yet to fill, in bringing out community development instrument that will be more Socio-economic for socio-economic development (projects and programmes to continue serving the need which they are created).

1.6     Scope and Limitations of the Study

1.6.1     Scope of the Study

This study covers a period of four years, 2015-2019. The researcher chooses this period in other to make a reasonable and proper appraisal on community development projects and programmes within Kudan Local Government Area and how they continue to serve the purpose which they are executed.

1.6.2     Limitation of the Study

The study in limited to only Kudan Local Government Area, the major limitation of this study is the problem of very poor record keeping in Kudan local government; It was a great task to get documented data, on community development projects and programmes within the local government.

Secondly, the study has the problem of the attitude of some local government officials’ respondents, especially (the political class) who were either absent from office and or very often feel reluctant to sit and attend to our questions. It took a long period of time, over two months of the researcher’s repeated visit to their offices and sometimes their homes, before some of the officials could attend to our questions.

The third and last problem is the problem of time. The limited time for the study could not give the opportunity to cover more communities than would have done. In effort to ameliorate the adverse effect of the research limitations, the researcher went extra miles to the State Ministry for Community and Rural development to get meaningful data on this regard. The researcher also visited the local government secretariat and even officials houses to get primary data for the research work and personal observation of checklist of issues.

1.7     Definition of Key Terms

Community Development:

People are capable of organizing themselves to bring social and physical benefits to their community.

Self or collective community effort for achieving progress and development.

Mobilizing local initiative in the interest of the community.

Proper channeling of external assistance to provide more incentives and motivation for development projects and programmes in the community.

Selfless service, volunteerism and participation of community people in developmental activities and self-help programmes.

Socio-Economic Development:  

An improvement or increase in the living standard of the people.

 

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SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS AND SPORTS PARTICIPATION

IMPACT OF SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS OF FEMALE STUDENTS’ PARTICIPATION IN SPORTS

ABSTRACT

The study examined Impact of Socio-Cultural Factors on Female Students’ Participation in Sports. with reference to Female Students in CASSS, Kaduna Polytechnic as a Case Study. Objectively, four research questions were formulated. The survey design was used in the study. The sample size was 345. 345 questionnaires were administered to the respondents, but 278 questionnaires were found valid. The data gathered were analysed using simple percentage and mean. The findings revealed that: Physical benefit, mental benefit, social benefit, health benefit and success benefit are the benefits of sports’ participation to females; Females do not engage in sports because it will affect their marriages, females do not participate in sports because they may not marry, females’ participation in sports is affected by lack of awareness, females’ participation in sports is affected by lack of facility, and the absence of role models has limited the interest of females in sports participation are the attitudes of females towards sports participation; … . Based on the findings, conclusion was drawn and recommendations given that A proper education of the benefits of sports participation to both males and females should be taught at all levels of education; Provision for female competitions in common sports like soccer, volleyball and basketball both in and out of school; An awareness campaign to desensitize and neutralize myths and beliefs about the adverse effects of sports and women in communities within the state; … .

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background of the Study

Despite immense contributions of female to national development in Africa, they still face a number of difficulties that limit their potentials in promoting personal and collective development. Ladan (2009) opined that, for many years, society maintained a greater degree of sports competition for boys than for girls. In recent years, there have been many change in female’s participation in sports, but the rate of changes have been found to be extremely low. Adler (2008) explained that, today as in the past most female members of the society have fewer opportunities in life compared to their male counterparts as they are expected to run a home and bring up children. Female have less free time in their choice of leisure activities and they are more restricted than males. Over a long period of time, female have demanded changes in society to give them equal status with men. Social changes have gradually given female greater opportunities to plan their own lives. Nevertheless, the battle for equal opportunities with men is still being fought.

The low rate of female involvement in sports is not due to lack of interest in sports by them. Instead, it is due to the long history of direct and indirect forms of discrimination and stereo-typing that female have to contend with (Adeyanju, 2011). The sport for all movement started in the mid-1970s in Europe. It was a concept being adopted to achieve a long term objective by the council of Europe, it was aimed at encouraging the population at large to become more active while it also proclaimed the message that sports are not for the talented few. Almost twenty years later, participation in sports and recreation are justified on the assumption that they serve as mediums for developing desirable attitudes and behaviour that are essential for one’s own wellbeing. Sports for all was an attempt to extricate sport from domination by the privilege few and to declare it as an entitlement for everybody in an egalitarian society. This means that, sports for all implies equal opportunities for participation for both males and females, irrespective of age, political affiliation, gender, race or religion. While this was considered to be important and the ideal, it has proved difficult to achieve in reality, particularly in relation to female (Okey, 2011).

In contrast to the expectation of sport for all, female experience role conflict and this is reflected in the attitude of the general public regarding female athletic participation in Nigeria. Female’s participation in sport in Nigeria has for a long time been relatively low compared with men due to differential treatment based on socio-cultural roles and expectations. Consequently, the traditional images of gender in Nigeria have often worked against female’s participation in sport. This perhaps, extensively reduces already existing opportunities that are available for female in sports. An analysis of those actively involved in sports in Nigeria indicates that men constitute the greater number either as players, coaches, or as administrators. In spite of Nigeria’s ethnic, culture and religious diversity, a constant theme seems to run through the society as regards the traditional place of female; her traditional place is in the home. Her ideal role is associated with child bearing, rearing and housekeeping. Nigeria is therefore is classified as a society where cultural values predominate in all activities (Adeyanju, 2011).

Female have faced barriers that have discouraged their progress in the level of participation in sport. Amuche (2004) demonstrated that, throughout history, men have controlled sport, used it for their own purposes and shaped it to fit their abilities. Consequently, fewer numbers of female have participated in sporting activities than men. Ikhioya (1999), reported that, female in Nigeria universities were not active sport participants. According to him, these female did not regard sport as conducive to their physical wellbeing. Nigerian society still experiences significant gender inequality in sports, despite recent international class performances by female sprinters and football players in national teams. This inequality can visibly affect the opportunities for female to participate in sport, thereby limiting their sport experiences. Ikhioya (1999), further showed that in most communities in Nigeria especially rural ones, cultural beliefs and attitudes had strong influences on low participation of female in sports. Besides, organization of sporting activities in most communities are usually focused on combative sports, such as boxing, wrestling, archery and shooting. Men are major participants in such sports which tend to discriminate against female. Sports participation and non­participation are influenced by several factors which are related to and basically hinged on socio-cultural background. The survival of any activities like sports is regarded as a function of socio-cultural characteristics which prevails in an organization. Sports therefore as an institutionalized social phenomenon depends largely for its continuing existence on the favourable support it receives from cultural and social forces.

It was stated by Adeyanju (2011) that, psycho-social and cultural factors which exert pressure on female through the immediate family, community, religion, media, peer groups and other sources of socialization to reinforce expected behaviour and teaching of gender roles. Sports is an exemplary activity which focuses attention on the gender influence by allowing for the comparison of innate against learned factors. Sports, traditionally, is defined as a male domain. Excellence in sports is an attribute cherished for men while it is seen as a distraction for female rather than an element of healthy living.

Ikulayo (1998) observed that, most developing countries, including Nigeria, have not experienced rapid changes in female’s active participation in sports compared to their more developed counterparts. This is due to a number of socio- cultural factors such as religion, parent, culture, peer group, gender role, mass media etc on religion aspect for example in northern Nigeria where majority are muslims. The Islamic religion and social expectations for public behaviour influences the choice of female in this part of the country to participate actively in sport. Adeyanju (2011) observed that, religious attitude as regards the free association of men and female and the exposure of parts of the body especially that of female, is a major constraints to female participation in sports.

Ikulayo (1998) stated that, most societies in the late twentieth century still believed that a woman’s place was in the kitchen, in care of children and in managing domestics chores. When female are at home, they may not have adequate space or time to fully participate in sports. Yan and Thomas (2005), reported that, cultural expectations shape children’s physical activity patterns and gender differences in their motor performance. Adler (2008) indicated that, parents’ reactions and expectations towards their children create the messages or concepts of children’s sex role stereotypes in physical activity. This report portends that, sex role stereotype can affect sport experiences of female. It is in the view of the above that the study seeks to investigate Impact of Socio-Cultural Factors on Female Students’ Participation in Sports. with reference to Female Students in CASSS, Kaduna Polytechnic as a Case Study.

1.2     Statement of the Problem

Human beings live in a world where inequality reigns. This inequality manifests itself in various spheres in Nigeria and it affects the femalefolk greatly. Inequality exists in political, social, education and sports spheres; where female are being discriminated against based on their gender. Adeyanju (2011) observed that, the low involvement of female in sports is not due to the lack of interest in sports by female. It is due to the long history of direct, and indirect forms of discrimination and stereo-typing as well as many other problems that female have to contend with. Female’s participation in sports in Nigeria has for a long time been relatively low compared with men due to differential treatment attached to socio-cultural factors i.e parent, religion, culture, gender, peer group, mass media etc. Ikhioya (1999), reported that, female in Nigerian tertiary institutions were not active sport participants. According to him, female did not regard sport as conducive to their physical well being. Changes can however be noticed following the advent of western education accompanied by exposure across culture and ethnic background. Review of available literature revealed that there is paucity of study on influence of social cultural factors on sport participation among students in Nigerian tertiary institutions. The present study therefore seeks to investigate Impact of Socio-Cultural Factors on Female Students’ Participation in Sports. with reference to Female Students in CASSS, Kaduna Polytechnic as a Case Study..

1.3     Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study is to investigate Impact of Socio-Cultural Factors on Female Students’ Participation in Sports. Other specific objectives are to:

  1. Identify the benefits of sports’ participation to females in CASSS Unit of Kaduna Polytechnic.
  2. Examine the attitudes of females towards sports participation in CASSS Unit of Kaduna Polytechnic.
  3. Examine sociocultural beliefs about females’ participation in sports in CASSS Unit of Kaduna Polytechnic.
  4. Find out the sociocultural factors affecting females participation in sports in CASSS Unit of Kaduna Polytechnic.

1.4     Research Questions

The following research questions are formulated from the objective of the study to guide the study:

  1. What are the benefits of sports’ participation to females in CASSS Unit of Kaduna Polytechnic?
  2. What are the attitudes of females in sports towards sports participation in CASSS Unit of Kaduna Polytechnic?
  3. What are the sociocultural beliefs about females’ participation in sports in CASSS Unit of Kaduna Polytechnic?
  4. What are the sociocultural factors affecting females’ participation in sports in CASSS Unit of Kaduna Polytechnic?

1.5     Significance of the Study

The significance of the study is to provide information on some socio-cultural factors influencing female students’ participation in sports. It is hoped that the findings of the study would help:

Students/Female Students discover the benefits involve in females’ participation in sports.

Researchers carrying out research on related subject matter as a reference material and also equip him or her with adequate knowledge and skills to enable him or her to exploit the untapped consultancy and research opportunities in the sector

Sport administrator understand the socio-cultural factors influencing female students’ participation in sports.

Government implement policy against socio-cultural factors influencing female students’ participation in sports.

1.6     Scope of the Study

The focus of this research work is to primarily study the Impact of Socio-Cultural Factors on Female Students’ Participation in Sports with reference to Female Students in CASSS, Kaduna Polytechnic. Therefore, the study will comprise female students in CASSS, Kaduna Polytechnic.

1.7     Operational Definition of Terms

Factor: One of the things that affects an event, decision, or situation.

Female Student: A school girl or lady pursuing a course of study in higher institution.

Impact: Influence that the sociocultural factors have on the behaviour and responses of the society to sports. The changes or effects caused by these factors, as applied to participation of female student in sports in CASSS Unit of Kaduna Polytechnic.

Participation: The act of taking part in an event or activity. This refers to how females partake in sports and sporting activities. How they engage or are involved in both the performance, playing, spectating and officiating of sports.

Sociocultural Factors: sociocultural factors imply those set of beliefs, morals, values and norms that affect the lifestyle, culture and practices of the people and how these females’s participation in sports.

Socio-Cultural:  Sociocultural is a term related to social and cultural factors, which means common traditions, habits, patterns and beliefs present in a population group.

Sports: Sports in this study refers to all forms of physical activities, but is more inclined to those performed in competitive or team form.

 

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RURAL WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATION

A STUDY OF RURAL WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATION FOR DEVELOPMENT IN KADUNA STATE OF NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the study was to investigate the causes, effects and possible solutions to the low participation of rural women in education using Kaduna State as its focus. This was prompted by the increase in the illiteracy level of the rural women and its implication for national development. The specific objectives of the study include: An investigation into the extent of rural women participation in planning their education, cultural/community restrictions and other factors that have contributed to the low participation of rural women in education. Also investigated are the influence of low participation of the rural women on national development and the strategies for improving their participation in education. The study generally aimed at improving rural women participation in education through participatory planning that can emerge with a relevant curriculum for women education. Two thousand and sixty nine (2069) respondents made up of 1,600 rural women and 469 literacy facilitators from the 19 rural local governments of Kaduna State were randomly selected for the study. The questionnaire was used in gathering data for the study. The analysis of data was on the causes and effects of low participation in education on national development and the strategies for improving participation in education. These were statistically tested using the means, standard deviations and the t-test for significance in the differences in the mean ratings of respondents as presented in the five hypotheses.   The  results  largely  showed  non-significant  differences. Consequently, the null hypotheses were accepted. The specific findings include: rural women were not involved in planning literacy programs meant for them. Cultural restrictions and other factors such as poverty, the non- chalant attitude of women towards education, inadequate funding, the frequent change in government and frequent revision of policies on education have also contributed to the low participation of women in education. It was discovered that the low participation of women in education has limited their contribution to national development. This is made manifest in their inadequate development of skills needed for development, limited participation in the process of governance, and inability to take up some job opportunities. Recognizing the implication of this for educational planning, a careful strategy that aims at meeting the needs of the rural women was identified. The study therefore proposed a participatory planned education for rural women using the principle of Participatory Rural Appraisal.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background of the Study

Rural women play important role in improving general aspects of rural life. However, in most developing countries, women (and even more so, rural women) are still an under-privileged group with an inferior social status (Okojie, 1983; National Population Commission, 1999). Within the rural sector, Okojie (1983), sees the largest group of the poor as comprising the millions of women (including girls) who by their work in the fields produce a large part of the food consumed in the country, yet are disadvantaged in many areas. A closer examination of the situation of rural women through this study will seek to reveal the low participation of rural women in education and the disadvantages of females in most rural sectors. Nevertheless, rural women’s participation in the socio-economic development of their country in recent years has become a topic of major concern hence, the need for it to be treated as a goal in its own right (International Labour Organization,1990; Olorude, 1995).

Although women’s participation in the socio-economic development of the country is receiving attention throughout the world, majority of them still live in rural areas, un-educated, living in abject poverty and deprivation (National Population Commission, 1999). This demands that their continued illiteracy has to be looked into and ways of bringing them out have to be devised.  If  these women produce a large part of our food, they indeed need to be educated to enable them know more about modern equipment that can help them carry out their farming and other important activities within the rural areas.

This becomes important as it has been found that education can enhance productivity and the ability of rural women so as to contribute to the national economy (Nwabueze, 1995). This researcher is of the view that rural women would be in a better position to use technologically developed equipment that may enhance their productivity if educated. This is because education’s concern is being modernized towards integration with the national economy (Rahman,1981).

Akangbou (1983) maintains that education is no longer an isolated industry from the national economy. Every system of education is supposed to be geared towards the development of its national economy and every segment of the society, including rural women should be equipped with education and training to enable it contribute to the national economy. Kaduna State of Nigeria is desirous to develop the ability of every member of the society (including rural women) to enhance their productivity and contribution to the development of the nation.

The Nigerian government having realised the benefit of education to its citizens emphasized the “equalization of opportunities” as one of the goals of the national policy on education  (National Policy on Education, 2004). This means that there should be availability of an appropriate education for all citizens. It has however been discovered that a large segment of the Nigerian society (3,992,744 which represents about 44%) are still illiterates (National Population Commission,1999). This may be due to ignorance on the benefits of education, non-availability of an appropriate education, or through lack of opportunity to be educated (Okojie,1983; Olaide,1990 Nwabueze,1995). The case of the rural women is even more glaring as statistics shows that out of the 22,949,499 rural women in Nigeria, about 14,67,722 do not participate in any form of education. This means that it is only about 38.7% of rural women that are educated (National Population Comission,1999).

The goal of “education for all” has been pursued vigorously by the government through the introduction of different programmes such as the Universal Primary Education in 1976 and the Universal Basic Education in 1999. The introduction of the National Mass Literacy campaign in 1982 and the different adult education programmes are examples of Federal government’s efforts to achieve “education for all” as a deliberate national policy (Nwabueze,1995). Other programmes such as the Better Life for Rural Women by Mariam Babangida in 1986 and the Family Support Programme by Mariam Abacha in 1994, were introduced at various times to enable development hitherto concentrated in the urban areas to filter down to the rural women. However, the level of participation of rural women in such programmes in Kaduna State was not encouraging. The Kaduna State Agency for Mass Literacy (2003) statistics shows that out of the about 1,360,224 rural women in the 19 designated rural local governments used for this study, about 60% do not participate in any form of literacy programme. The few women who enroll do not complete the programme for one reason or the other. There is a need to properly investigate the factors responsible for this.

Similarly, Nwabueze (1995) states that various women groups such as the National Council of Women Societies (NCWS), the Federation of Muslim Women Association of Nigeria (FOMWAN) and Women In Nigeria (WIN) have tried to affect positively, the lives of women over the years. These groups have used different methods to educate the women. Though their ideologies and attitudes may differ, one thing that binds them together is their determination to create better awareness among women in order to improve their status and effectiveness in nation development. These measures according to Ijere (1996) and Nagee (1997) greatly enhanced the awareness of women generally but did not filter down to the rural women (Okojie, 1983).

This study starts with the basic assumptions that, “Education for all” philosophy promised in our system of education has not properly benefited the rural women and it is doubtful whether the current Nigerian system of education meets the needs of the rural women (Ijere, 1992; Okojie, 1983; Agu, 1983; Olurode, 1995). The changes that education is meant to bring, such as economic efficiency, social and political achievements are not seen on the women. A lot of them still suffer one form of oppression or the other. They suffer from poverty and are in most cases un-rewarded for their labour.

The study would establish whether the rural women would be motivated to take to education if the planners had, through interaction with the women, discovered their views, opinions, why they do certain things and why they do not do certain things, time most appropriate for their education, and under what situation, etcetera (Bown & Okedara, 1981).

It is doubtful whether the educational planners took the psychology of the rural women into consideration before planning literacy programmes for them. This is because, the only way to get access to the psychology of the rural dwellers, according to Carey (1997) is to involve them in planning programmes meant for them. However, records of rural women’s participation in educational planning are hard to come by (Enyi,1995). Consequently, rural women in Kaduna State are still not responding to modern education as anticipated (Kaduna State Agency for Mass Literacy,2003). They see education programmes as something being forced down on them. This is evidenced in the record of their low participation in literacy programmes. For instance, out of the 160,960 females who enrolled for basic literacy programmes between 1990 to 2005, only 45,228 completed the programme for certification (Appendix B1). This calls for a study in Kaduna State to investigate the position of Caldwell and Caldwell (1987) who have argued that, though institutional and legal barriers to women’s access to education have been substantially reduced the world over, deep-rooted cultural beliefs and social habits that sustain gender inequality have a prolonged effect.

Some previous studies such as the studies of Idachaba (1980) Ijere (1996), The World Bank (1996) and Connel (1997) have been directed towards participation of rural dwellers in education programmes. However, none of these studies actually emphasized women’s participation in educational planning. For instance, the study of Idachaba (1980), was directed towards the participation of rural dwellers in agricultural education. This study dealt mainly with extension education (in agriculture) without emphasizing the participation of rural women in literacy education planning. Similarly, Ijere (1996) actually emphasized rural women’s participation in community development programmes and not education per se. Besides, the study of Connel, (1997) dealt with participation of rural dwellers in development programmes but without specific reference to women and their education. The study of IAWA (1997) simply concentrated on the participation of rural dwellers in development programmes without specific reference to women participation, which forms the central theme of this study. The present study therefore, hopes to ascertain why there is low participation of rural women in literacy education; the extent of involvement of the women in planning their literacy programmes, other factors affecting participation and the strategies that could be used to improve women participation in education in Kaduna State.

1.2     Statement of the Problem

 The Federal Government of Nigeria recognises the role of education in nation building. To this end, the National Policy on Education (2004) maintains that, equalization of educational opportunities for all citizens is a sure way of realizing national growth and development through education.

It has been established that, a larger percentage of Nigerians (45,061,106) are rural dwellers (Appendix C1). This figure is about 60% of the total Population of Nigeria, which are 71,556,875 (National Population Commission, 1999). Government’s efforts to harness the activities of these rural dwellers in order to attain development are being intensified. The National Population Commission (1999) maintains that a larger part of the rural area (22,949,499) is dominated by rural women. This figure represents more than 50% of rural dwellers in Nigeria. The National Population Commission (1999) puts the figure of illiterate rural women at about 14,67,722million (62%).

Having realized the importance of education to citizens, government introduced the National Literacy campaign in 1982 and other adult literacy programs (Okojie 1983; Nwabueze, 1995; and Olaide,1990). Unfortunately, statistics on the Literacy Programmes reveal that out of the 1,360,224 rural women from the 19 rural local governments used for this study, about 60% do not participate in any kind of education (Kaduna State Agency for Mass Education,2003). This illiteracy rate is high compared to that of the men, which is 36%. The National Population Commission puts the total population of men in Kaduna state as at the 1991 census at 1,613,115 while their literate population was 1,046,418 (64%). This low participation of the rural women in education is raising very serious concern as the changes that education is meant to bring, such as economic efficiency and cultural changes have not been seen in the women. Thus, education has not properly benefited the rural women and it is doubtful whether this system of education meets the needs of the rural women.

It would be established through this study whether other contributive factors such as restrictions imposed both by the communities and the society as a whole at the rural level have accounted for this low participation of the rural women in education. Boyle’s study (1992) in Pakistan shows that when rural women were allowed to participate in planning programmes that concerns them, they participated more in such programmes. To what extent therefore do rural women participate in planning their education? This study would attempt to establish the causes, effects and possible solutions to the low participation of rural women in education in Kaduna state.

1.3     Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to examine why there is low participation of rural women in literacy education in Kaduna State of Nigeria. The specific objectives the study would want to achieve are as follows:

  1. To investigate the extent of involvement of rural women in the planning of their education.
  2. To identify community restrictions that contributes to the low participation of the rural women in adult literacy
  3. To investigate   the   other   factors   responsible   for   the   low participation of the rural women in education
  4. To assess the effect of the low participation in literacy education on national development.
  5. To examine and suggest strategies for encouraging rural women’s participation in literacy education.

1.4     Research Questions

The study will be guided by the following research questions:

  1. To what extent are the rural women involved in the planning of their education?
  2. What community   restrictions   have   contributed   to   the   low participation of the rural women in literacy education?
  3. What other factors are responsible for the low participation of the rural women in education?
  4. What are the effects of the low participation in literacy education by rural women on national development?
  5. What strategies can be employed to encourage rural women’s participation in literacy education?

1.5     Hypotheses

The following hypotheses will be tested in the course of the investigation:

  1. There is no significant difference between the rural women in Kaduna North and South in the mean ratings of their responses regarding the extent of their involvement in the planning of their
  2. There is no significant difference between the rural women in Kaduna North and South in the mean ratings of their responses with respect to the community restrictions that have contributed to their low level of participation in literacy education.
  3. There is no significant difference between the rural women in Kaduna North and South in the mean ratings of their responses on the other factors responsible for their low participation in literacy education
  4. There is no significant difference between the rural women in Kaduna North and South in the mean ratings of their responses regarding the effects of their low participation in education on national development
  5. There is no significant difference between programme facilitators and rural women in Kaduna Sate in the mean ratings of their responses with respect to the strategies for encouraging rural women’s participation in literacy education.

1.6     Theoretical Framework

It is important to identify a well-articulated and relevant theory that will under gird the study. The principle on participation upon which this study is based is the collaborative decision making (community based methods) of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and SARAR (self-esteem, associative strengths, resourcefulness, action planning and responsibility) by the World Bank (1996). SARAR is geared towards the training of local trainers/facilitators, builds on local knowledge and strengthens local capacity to assess, prioritize, plan, create, organise and evaluate (World Bank, 1996). The principle of SARAR is related to this study in that this study intends to use the local knowledge of the rural women to strengthen their capacity to enable them participate in planning programs that concern them.

The Concept of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): Participatory Rural Appraisal is a label given to a growing family of participatory approaches and methods that emphasize local knowledge and enable local people to do their own appraisal, analysis, and planning (Adnan,1992). Participatory Rural Appraisal uses group animation and exercises to facilitate information sharing, analysis, and action among stakeholders (USAID, 1998). Although originally developed for use in rural areas, Participatory Rural Appraisal has been employed successfully in a variety of settings. As professionals have become more aware of errors, myths, and the misfit between the reality they construct and the reality others experienced, some have sought and developed new approaches and methods in their work known as participatory approaches (Pretty, 1994). Participatory Rural Appraisal has three foundations or pillars (IAWA, 1997). These pillars are:

  1. The behaviour and attitudes of outsiders who facilitate, not dominate community development programme planning.
  2. The methods which shift the normal belief from closed to open, from individual to group, from verbal to visual and from measuring to comparing and;
  3. Partnership and sharing of information experience and training between insiders and outsiders, and between

The use of Participatory Rural Appraisal to the present study is that, it will enable development practitioners, government officials (educational planners), and local people to work together on context-appropriate programmes. Its essence is to enable local people to share, enhance and analyse their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan, act, monitor and evaluate their own work. It has been found to work in many fields; and the desire is to see how applicable it could be in bringing rural women into participation in planning their education.

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA): The Rapid Rural Appraisal forms a large part of the participatory rural appraisal approach. This emerged in the late 1970s when more discoveries were made of the fact that rural dwellers (including women were not completely ignorant). They knew about native laws, guidelines and principles that guided their communities before the advent of modern education. Rapid Rural Appraisal has three main origins. These are:

  1. Dissatisfaction with the biases, especially the anti-poverty biases of rural development tourism, the phenomenon of the brief rural visits by the urban-based professionals. This hides the worst poverty and deprivation because the outsiders were always diplomatic (not wishing to cause offence by asking to meet poor people (including rural women) or see their conditions.
  2. Disillusion with the normal process of questionnaire, survey and their results. These were inaccurate and The reports were boring, misleading and difficult to use.
  3. More cost-effective methods of learning was This was helped by professionals recognising that rural people were themselves knowledgeable on many subjects which touch their lives. What became known as indigenous technique (IIK) was then increasingly seen to have richness and value for practical purpose. It contributed the following to Participatory Rural Appraisal: A reversal of learning, learning rapidly and progressively, optimising trade off, triangulation, and seeking diversity.

Through this principle, the planner would discover the indigenous knowledge, richness and value that would improve participation of rural women, thereby reducing the level of illiteracy (Pretty, 1994). By the middle of 1990s, activities of Participatory Rural Appraisal were practiced in not less than 100 countries and there were over 30, mainly national PRA related networks (The World Bank,1996). Many countries have held national PRA conferences and its applications had become numerous in all fields of learning and development. Non -governmental Organisations, Government, Banks, Training Institutes and universities have used PRA successfully (IAWA, 1997).

The study is related to these principles, in that it would make it easier for educational planners who are committed to emerge with a suitable education system for the rural women, to collaborate with a broad range of these women, and other stakeholders such as local leaders, husbands, communities, change- agents/facilitators, in the selection, design and implementation of an education plan for rural development.

1.7     Significance of the Study

The findings of this study would benefit the planners and facilitators of women education. The government, policy makers, community leaders, the rural women and the society will also benefit. The benefits to the planners include the increase in knowledge of the way of life of the women (their psychology) through interaction with the rural women, which would bring about an appropriate curriculum for rural women education. This would also improve the planner’s strategy in planning rural education.

The skills of the facilitators in this field, especially teachers and instructors should improve if the strategies discussed in the study (The PRA and SARAR) are properly adopted. The government should also benefit in that, it would be brought nearer to the community making it easier for the interpretation and implementation of policies to the rural women. The government through the discoveries of this research would be able to modify and supplement the existing mode of life by supplying programmes, which would require to be incorporated to improve the culture of the rural women for their living. When the government is brought nearer to the community it may even convince the community to release their resources to support education programmes.

Rural women would benefit by having an improved socialization process, sharing of norms among unlike groups, they would be more aware of the benefit of education and it would make it easier for them to communicate their needs to the government. The women would even perform their domestic roles better. Through this research, the need for equity would be fulfilled, while the socio -economic gaps in the society would be covered because rural women would now perform their roles better than what it is now, thereby leading to an improved national development. Above all, women would have the opportunity to be involved in the planning process, which would emerge with an appropriate curriculum for their education.

The objectives of this study therefore, extends beyond participation of the women in education planning. It encompasses improved education, which would eventually lead to improved and increased productivity, and then higher incomes for the target groups, as well as minimum acceptable levels of foods, shelter and health. The study would bring to focus the relevance of rural women’s education, the relevance of participation and its effect on national development.

1.8     Delimitation of the Study

The study is restricted to rural women’s participation in literacy education in Kaduna State with specific reference to rural women in Kaduna North and South. The literacy programmes are: basic Literacy, post-Literacy, functional education, Girl-Child education and Quaranic education. The choice of Kaduna State is due to the fact that it is one of the educationally less developed states of the federation striving to improve literacy rate among the citizens. The rural women and their programme facilitators constitute the target population. The rural women in the State are in the good position to explain their level of participation in education. The literacy facilitators are also useful because they handle the literacy programmes and have good perspectives of the problems encountered by the rural women. The Questionnaire was administered on the sample of the population, consisting of rural women and programme facilitators in all the 19 rural local government areas of the State. Findings will be generalised to cover the whole of Kaduna State.

1.8     Operational Definition of Terms

The following terms are operationally defined for the purpose of this study:-

Rural Women: This refers to the women mostly found in the villages. They work mostly in fields, gardens and farms to produce a large part of the food consumed in villages and urban areas. Rural women for the purpose of this study are women found in small homestead, villages and hamlets. The educated women that lives in rural areas but carry out their activities in urban areas do not form part of this study.

Participating in Educational Planning:. This is the process of getting rural women involved in making decisions concerning their education.

Participation in Education:. This is the act of getting rural women to enroll in education programmes.

Development:. It is an act of bringing about a change in the structure of the society in all dimensions in order to have a society with equality and equity for all. Development should emphasize the human aspect just as it does to the provision of tangible things.

Education:. This is the inculcation of knowledge to an individual or a group of people. Education here covers all forms of education such as formal, informal and non-formal education. The curriculum should have specific objectives relating to rural areas. This means different curriculum for rural women still within school age, and older women whose curriculum should be geared towards occupation, job training, community living and development.

Education for Rural Development:. This has to do with the inculcation of knowledge that would bring about the desired skill, which would bring positive change to the society. It is the education that seeks to promote knowledge and development of skills that would contribute to nation building.

Kaduna North and South:. This is a classification of women in Kaduna state according to their geographical and cultural differences. Kaduna state is found in the north central part of Nigeria. Differences in religious, social characteristics, and community backgrounds are put into consideration in discussing the rural women in this study.

 

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PARENTAL PARTICIPATION IN CHILD EDUCATION

EFFECT OF PARENTAL PARTICIPATION IN ORPHAN AND VULNERABLE CHILD EDUCATION

ABSTRACT

This study entitled „ The Effect Of Parental Participation In Orphan And Vulnerable Child Education ( A Case Study Of Selected Schools In Chikun LGA in Kaduna State ‟ was intended to assessing the effect of parental active participation in Orphan and Vulnerable Children(OVC) in chikun LGA of Kaduna state. The main objectives of the study were to examine the extent to which parental commitment to school work had an influence on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in chikun Local government Area ; Determine the influence of parent’s involvement at home on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in Chikun Local government Area; Examine the Influence of Parents educational background on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in Chikun Local government Area; Determine the influence of the parent’s socio-economic status on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in Chikun Local government Area to identify the influence of financial income of parents on girl child education in selected local governments areas of Kaduna state. Random sampling technique was employed, 180 respondents formed the sample size of the study, and structured questionnaire was used for collecting data from the respondents. The answers to the research questions were provided with tables of frequencies and percentages. It was found that there was no significant difference in the opinion of the teacher and parent on the Parental commitment to school work which have influence on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in the selected school of chikun local government areas in Kaduna state. On the relationship between parental commitments to academic work at home on the education of the Orphan and Vulnerable child there was significant relationship. Parental educational background was found to influence the orphan and vulnerable child. The Orphan and Vulnerable child education in the selected schools in chikun local government areas of Kaduna state is significantly influenced by the financial income status of parents. Based on the findings of this study, it was recommended that government at various levels should engendered economic empowerment of parents by providing employment opportunities, provision of credit facilities for farmers and other such avenues by which local population can be made to be more productive so as to enhance their economic standard of living. The schools should also organize orientation and training programmes through members of the PTA to create awareness among parents on the need for the orphan and vulnerable Child education.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1         Background to the Study

The home is the prime social institution for children. The child here requires care, proper attention and commitments from the family. In it, the primary shaping of human character takes place (Hurlock, 1974). Nwa-chill (1984) stated that the home/family as a primary social groups and the smallest social unit where the child‟s upbringing must begin since his birth. These upbringings develop the child‟s principles which grow, enlarge with it making the child‟s integral part. The personality development pattern is established in the young within the framework of his relationship with the parent. Parents constitute the chief societal influence with the child experience right from the child’s early years (Hurlock, 1974, p. 10).

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC, 1990) emphasized that childhood is a period of entitlement as a result of the mental and physical susceptibility of the child. Consequently, the obligation of the family, primarily the parents, is significant in preparing the child for life as an individual in society. This responsibility is clear in Article 18 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) which asserts that both parents and in the absence of parents‟, legal guardians have the primary responsibility for the nurturing and development of the child.

In the home, the ideology of “motherhood” portrays mothers as being the ultimate caregivers. They invest most if not all of their time on their children which sometimes affects their job and role in the labour market. Although “stays at home moms” are common, women are seen as spending more time with children than men. They are commonly the nurturers of the children and support emotional growth and stability. Fathers now more than ever are spending more time with their children. Whereas in the past, fathers were the breadwinners and the mothers stayed at home to cook, clean and take care of children. The roles are starting to reverse. Fathers are participating more in parenting roles and taking on responsibilities such as bathing, dressing, feeding, changing diapers and comforting children (Rain and William, 2011, p. 7).

A parent is the child’s first and most important teacher in life and he or she is expected to play an active role in the child’s preschool journey because it is believed a parent and child should grow together and have a rewarding preschool experience. This follows subsequently by school life where academic performance is expected to be high. The parent is supposed to be supportive to the child in all aspects which include socially, physically, mentally and also emotionally (Epstein, 2001). Studies have indicated that children whose parents and/or other significant adults share in their formal education tend to do better in school. Some benefits that have been identified that measure parental involvement in education include; higher grades and test scores, long term academic achievement, positive attitudes and behaviours and more successful programs (Epstein, p.3).

Parental participation in pre-school activities includes a wide range of behaviours but generally refers to parents’ and family members’ use and investment of resources in their children’s schooling. These investments can take place in or outside of school, with the intention of improving children’s learning. Parental involvement at home can include activities such as discussions about school, helping with homework, and reading with children. Involvement at school may include parents volunteering in the classroom, attending workshops, or attending school plays and sporting events (Rain and William, 2011, p. 7).

The technique employed by parents in the treatment of the child serves as a formative factor on the child’s behaviour. Such techniques include incentives they offer, the

frustration they impose, their methods of control together with the character of their general attitude towards the child (Hurlock, 1974, p. 10), the other requirement the child needs is playing materials. Parent must provide some of demonstration and instructional materials. These materials are important because they help the child to be able to play, assist in concept building, promotion of discovery and creativity and enhance interaction with others as they play. These playing materials include the balls, track suits, toys, Picture books, clay ,paints, blackboard, beads, large blocks, medium blocks, flower title, concentric figures, dolls, nest of rings, cars, puzzles, pyramid, wooden animals, balls, pull toys, cars, trains, trucks, wagon, seesaw and slides etc (Frost, Wortham & Reifel, 2008).

According to Lundahl & Harris (2006), opined that effective parent participation, training and family interventions can change parents‟ attitudes and behaviours, promote protective factors, and lead to positive outcomes for both parents and children. So also Gadsden (2003) says greater parental involvement at early stage in children‟s learning, positively affects a child‟s school performance including higher academic achievement( as cited by Kotirde and Yonus 2014, p.1).

Kotride and Yanus (2014,para.2) also cited in his work researcher who opined that although parental participation is important through all the years of school, it changes as children develop; therefore, a student in middle or high school benefits from different parental participation than does an elementary school student. Whereas parental participation for quality education in elementary school may have focused on assisting a child with homework, in the middle or high school, the student‟s countless need might be assistance with determining what courses to take to ensure college or career readiness. Rowan-Kenyon (2009) opined “parents participation and encourage quality opportunity through their expectations for their children‟s educational quality and occupational

attainment which has was refereed to some authors as “academic socialization” and emphasized its importance in middle school.

Research clearly demonstrates that there is a direct relationship between parent engagement and children‟s language and reading skills, ability to relate to and interact with others, they may be peers or adults, and their feelings of positive self-image (Berla, Henderson & Kerewsky, 1989). Parental Participation in their child‟s education appears to be on a decline locally despite being associated with positive outcomes for students. From researches, parents‟ participation in children‟s education is largely considered a panacea for low student achievement. Nevertheless, it also sets the stage for students to acquire and demonstrate better social skills, improved behaviour, and adaptability skills in challenging situations.

Furthermore, articles 28 and 29 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) elucidate the rights of the child to education were for the purpose of development of the child‟s personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to the fullest potential. Undoubtedly, as can be garnered from the aforementioned, the role of parents and/or guardians is inherent in a child‟s education.

1.2         Statement of the Problem

The 2008 Situation Assessment and Analysis on orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) in Nigeria carried out by the federal Ministry of women Affairs and Social Development reveals that in Nigeria, 17.5 million children are vulnerable children and most are orphans. Although it is customary in Nigeria for extended family and community members to care for orphans and vulnerable children (OVC), the capacity and resources of these individuals and households have been overextended by the growing number of OVC and the complexity of their needs. UNICEF, 2008 Assessment show that about 9.7 million children these growing up without one or both of their parents. Many more are at risk of separation, due to the impact of poverty, disability and such crises as natural disaster and armed

conflict. Children without parental care find themselves at a higher risk of discrimination, inadequate care, abuse and exploitation, and their well-being is often insufficiently monitored (Linus 2015).

Parents/ Guardian of the Orphan and Vulnerable Children (OVC) are often faced with unique challenges that hinder them from meeting the learners‟ needs. their involvement were influenced by so many factors ranging from ignorance, poverty, cultural factors, distance between the home and where the school is situated, utility, insufficient time, level of education of parent, order of priority, set home environment, opinion to voluntary work at school, time taken to respond to school activities for example buying instruction materials, attending parents meetings, conferences, sports ,Open House day, disciplinary cases and also discussing the academic progress of the child and value of education among others academically (Mwirichia, 2013. p 15). If the above needs are not attended to, there is a likelihood of child not performing well because he or she is not adequately supported. Insufficient parental involvement may lead to poor performance of the child leading to child deprivation.

These factors above have been found to foster negative involvement which limits parents from participating in the child‟s education. The persistence of this ugly trend if allowed to go on unabated, would definitely affect the fourth commitment of the National Priority Agenda (NPA) for vulnerable children in Nigeria in line with Nigerians Vision 2020 (NV20) and the fourth goal of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of education for all child by 2030. Hence, efforts must be intensified to ameliorate the situation, in order to facilitate meaningful national development. One of such ways to ensure the resolution of this ugly trend is to embark on a study that are aimed at identifying remote factors responsible for lack of parental support towards orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) education.

The Vulnerable Children especially the handicapped are regarded as liability in the society. Most handicapped children are neglected not only by the society but by their own immediate family members too. They are isolated in terms of educational provision and even where education is provided, only a few benefits from it. It is against this background that this study sets out to assess how parental involvement influence goes a long way to influence the orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) education in Kaduna state.

This study aims at assessing the effect of parental active participation in Orphan and Vulnerable Children(OVC) education and providing solutions to role of parents in Orphan and Vulnerable Children(OVC) education in chikun LGA of Kaduna state, Nigeria.

1.3        Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to critically examine the impact, role and effectiveness of a parent of in the life of an OVC education in Nigeria, specifically the geographical location of Chikun Local Government Area, Kaduna State. The specific objectives include the following:

  1. Examine the extent to which parental commitment to school work have an influence on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in chikun Local government Area
  2. Determine the influence of parent‟s involvement at home on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in Chikun Local government Area
  3. Examine the Influence of Parents educational background on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in Chikun Local government Area
  4. Determine the influence of the parent‟s socio-economic status on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in Chikun Local government Area

1.4          Research Questions

  1. Parental commitment to school work; what impact does it have on OVC education in the selected schools in chikun local government areas of the state?
  2. Does parent‟s involvement at home have an effect on Orphan and Vulnerable Child‟s (OVC) education in the selected schools in Chikun local government areas of the state?
  3. To what extent does the parent educational background affect Orphan and Vulnerable Child‟s (OVC) education?
  4. What is the influence of the parent‟s socio-economic status on the Orphan and Vulnerable Child‟s (OVC) education?

1.5        Significance of the Study

Early intervention and prevention practices are greatly needed to facilitate the development of literacy skills and the prevention of academic, behavioral, and social problems among today‟s population of students. Parent participation may have an important role in helping young children experience later school success. For instance, Parents participation has been directly linked with academic achievement (Jeffries, 2012). However, further research is needed in this area to identify ways in which Parennt participation can be promoted and increased, particularly with Vulnerable children. Children who grow up in poverty are at higher risk for negative outcomes such as lower levels of cognitive development, academic achievement, and socio-emotional well-being (Allhusen et al., 2005).

As such the study would provide a feedback mechanism to parents‟ through which they would be able to judge themselves to see whether or not they are within the realm of the larger society as far as parental involvement of Child Education is concerned.

It would assist teachers and policy makers to have better understanding of the parent’s expectation about their children’s education and education Policy Makers with such information, which could facilitate planning and decision making, leading to the formulation of Child Education-Friendly Policies.

The study would equally be of help to fellow students who would want to embark on similar research work. It would provide them with the rudiment/elements of research report writing as well as relevant literature, which could serve as a starting point.

1.6 Scope of the Study

Childs‟ achievements in education are influenced by many people, processes and institutions. Parents, the broader family, peer groups, neighbourhood influences, schools and other bodies other bodies (e.g. churches, clubs) are all implicated in shaping children‟s

progress towards their self fulfilment. The children themselves, of course, with their unique abilities, temperaments and propensities play a central role informing and reforming their behaviour, aspirations and achievements. Also, there are several factors that may influence parental involvement in the modelling, cognitive and behavioural parent involvement dimensions. This study however, focused on parents‟ role construction because two factors which are educational background and socio-economic status of the parent which are likely to have a considerable influence on parental involvement. In addition, the study targeted parents of children in the higher primary school to senior secondary school. Due to the complexities involved, the in study will not focus on other factors which may affect parent involvement. It is delimited to parents with children in lower primary schools because children in this class can only read simple story books and will not understand the need for the research.

1.7 Definition of Terms

In this project the following terms will be used based on the following definitions.

Child: Nigeria defines an orphan as a child (0-17 years) who has lost one or both parents.

Vulnerable Child: A child is vulnerable if, because of the circumstances of birth or immediate environment, is prone to abuse or deprivation of basic needs, care and protection and thus disadvantaged relative to his or her peers (FMWA&SD 2008). A vulnerable child is one (that): with inadequate access to education, health and other social support, has a chronically ill parent, lives in a household with terminally or chronically ill parent(s) or caregiver(s), lives outside of family care (lives with extended family, in institution, or on street), is infected with HIV (FMWA&SD 2006).

An Orphan is a boy or girl child under the age of 18 years who lost one parent (maternal or paternal orphan) or both parents (total orphan). OVC: this means an Orphan and Vulnerable Child(ren)

Education: It is the aggregate of all the processes through which a person develops abilities attitudes and other forms of behaviour, which are positive in the society in which he/she grows-the development of personality.

Provider/Caregiver: Anyone who cares for OVC. These include parents, guardians, members of extended families and other home caregivers such as neighbours, community leaders. Also includes those providing or overseeing social services or making referrals such as community leaders, police officer, social workers, health care worker, teachers who have received training in how to address the needs of OVC.. For the purpose of this study Provider or caregiver will be seen as a parent.

Parents: A mature individual (Male or Female) who takes care of a child. He/she does not necessarily have to be the one who gave birth to the child.

Parental: this is the responsibility of parents/guardian t their child/ward as regards his or her education.

Participation: The act of taking part in an activity or events, in this case the upbringing and education of the child. It would will be used interchangeable with the word „‟involvement‟‟

Parental Involvement: Activities that parent engage in at home and at school and positive attitudes parents have toward their child‟s education, school, and teacher”

Poor Homes: Not having enough money for basic needs

Socio-Economic: Relating to, or involving a combination of social and economic factors.

 

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GENDER AND POLITICS IN ENUGU STATE: A CASE STUDY OF WOMEN IN PARTICIPATION, 1999- 2016

GENDER AND POLITICS IN ENUGU STATE: A CASE STUDY OF WOMEN IN PARTICIPATION, 1999- 2016

ABSTRACT

This research was embarked on to evaluate gender and politics and women in politics in Nigeria with special interest in Enugu State 1999-2016. The study formulated three objectives and three research questions to navigate the study. The major limitation to this study was that women participation in politics in Enugu State has no much record for use for analysis. In the literature review, the study looks at empirical study of women participation in politics. The study adopted feminist political theory as a theoretical framework and expos facto design as its methodology. The study used secondary data as method of data collection and content analysis as method of data analysis.  Afterword, the study found out in gender discrimination, politics should be reserved only for women who have come up of age and do not have much house chores. This according to the study brings about women career adjustment in other to rescue home situation and that of politics. The study recommends that in other to defeat the cultural factor that hinder women in participating in politics there should be mass education of women and gender enlightenment campaign that will create a balance of gender sensitivity in policy and political decision making.

  

Chapter One

Introduction

1.1     Background of Study

One of the fundamental challenges confronting women in every political system centers on the pervasive phenomenon of political alienation and domination of women by their male counterpart. From the local to global level, women’s leadership and political participation are restricted. Women are underrepresented as voters, as well as in leading positions whether in elected offices, the civil service, the private sector or academician. This occurs despite their proven abilities as leaders and agents of change and their right to participate equally in democratic governance. Women face several obstacles to participating in political life. Structural barriers through discriminatory laws and institutions still limit women’s options to run for offices. Over the years, the debilitating condition of gender inequality and discrimination against women in political participation and representation has given rise to the agitation for empowerment to enable an increase in their levels of political participation all over the world. In this regard, empowerment implies the creation of an enabling environment where individuals can fully use their capabilities to take charge of their lives. Women empowerment therefore, means investing in women’s right with legal backing, moral and financial support to enable women function effectively. Women empowerment also involves assessment of women’s needs and designing programmes to address those needs.

The increasing agitations for gender equality have raised intense academic discourse on poor participation of women in politics all over the world (Peterson & Ruyan, 1999: 48 & Akinboye, 2004:233). Women’s low political participation is a universal phenomenon (Waylen, 1996:11; Akinboye, op.cit:233; Lewu, 2005:62 &Rai, 2005). However the imperative of women participation in democratic governance cannot be over emphasized (Amadiume, 1997:81; Bruce, 2004:113; Babatunde, 2003; Bari, 2005). Sustainable democracy relies upon the equality and complementary participation of men and women in the conduct of the affairs of society through political processes (Sodaro, 2001:247, Anifowose, 2004:205; Akiyode-Afolabi&Arogundade, 2003). However, despite widespread democratization in most countries, women record poor participation in politics and decision making process across the world (Waylen, op.cit:10; Pokam, 2006; Henderson, 2006; Pascaud-Becane, 1999; Babatunde, op.cit; Anifowose, op.cit:204 & Bari, op.cit).

In Nigeria, although women constitute half the national population, the average representation of women in national politics has hardly ever been more than 3% (Ajayi, 2007:138; IPU, 2007; Nigeria CEDAW NGO Coalition Shadow Report, 2008). The challenge of women’s participation in Nigeria’s politics became worrisome following the country’s return to democracy in 1999. With the transfer of power from the military regime to a civilian democratic administration, one had expected a substantial improvement in women’s political participation in the country. On the contrary, the percentage increase in women’s political participation were 2%, 4% and 6%  and women representation in the national parliament, 6.3%, 8.8% and 7.3% in 1999, 2003 and 2007 elections respectively (Okocha, 2007; Akioyede-Afolabietal, 2003; The Nigeria CEDAW NGO Coalition Shadow Report, op.cit:3 & Adu, 2008:27). It is obvious therefore, that the perception that democracy would automatically boost women’s political involvement in Nigeria has not been validated after several years of its return to civilian rule.

The foregoing indicated that alongside men’s political association in most parts of Nigeria, particularly in Igbo society, like in Enugu State, women also had their own well organized political groups which were solely managed by women leaders in various communities. For instance, in Enugu State, the Umuada at the community and village levels had appreciable political and economic influence through established associations that are well managed and solely run by them. “Their powers and influence go beyond issues that affect trade to issues of governance at the state level. Igbo women’s movement and some others in Southern Nigeria have struggled to maintain some respectable level of power and influence in their communities” (Garba, 1999:2).Women can be described as an indispensable group in the development of any nation. Women constitute a critical segment of the Nigerian population. Thus, “the population of women in the present day is estimated to over 55% of the total population of this country,” (Yahaya, 1999:132). Apart from their numerical strength, women have great potentials necessary to evolve a new economic order, to accelerate social and political development and constantly transforming the society into a better one.

Women are active in the agriculture and economic sectors of the society and have also contributed immensely to the decolonization and general development of Nigerian state. Olawoye (1985:18), describes Nigerian women “as a crucial factor of production”. According to him, women assume this status because they are largely responsible for the bulk production of crops, agro-base food processing, preservation of crops and distribution of yields from farm centers to urban areas”. Awe (1990:9), perceived the importance of women from their role as managers of home. She noted that “the peace and stability at homes depends largely on the managerial abilities of women folk. She stressed further that women, especially the mothers, plan, organize, direct and coordinated all the resources of the home both human and materials to the benefits of all the members of the family including their husbands”. Some of them occupy strategic positions in the governments where they have continued to prove their good character. For instance, “Dora Akunyili, Oby Ezekwesili of Due process fame, NdiOkereke Onyiuke, Ngozi OkonjoIwuala and Ambassador (Mrs.) Justina Eze, among others have undoubtedly distinguished themselves in their official assignments” (Okafor, 2010:9).

Notwithstanding, in Enugu State today, the issue of women empowerment and political representation have been a bone of contention. Since the advent of modern public administration in Enugu State, Cultural factors among others, have been a serious source of problems against the development of women politically and have continued to militate against the development and prominence of Enugu State women in their roles in politics. Enugu state politics and government have been dominated by men at all levels, not because there are no women fit to fill the positions but because most women think of political participation as irrelevant for them. Among the factors inhibiting women to take active part in political behaviors such as voting and contesting in elections is lack of proper enlightenment about politics and financial dependence among other factors.

It is therefore, in recognition of the above facts that gave light to the background of this study of Gender and politics participation in Enugu State between 1999 and 2016 and to seek ways on how to engender a balance in the political affairs of the state.

1.2     Statement of the Problem

Historical evidences in many societies, both during the ancient and modern periods support the idea of male domination over their female folks in many spheres of human endeavor. The literature on the subjugation of women to men’s domination knows no bound with such literature covering wide range of issues, including the body, class and work, disability, the family, globalization, human rights, culture, race and racism, reproduction, science, the self, sex, work, human trafficking and sexuality. Throughout ages and virtually in all cultures, women were rarely considered equal to their male counterparts. From the home as daughter, wife, and mother, through the school, office and church as student, employee and worshiper respectively, to the public sphere of life as in business and politics, women are known to have been discriminated, marginalized and dominated through the combination of gender-based cultural norms and practices which were in favour of men.

Since 1999 when the present civilian government came into power after a long period of military regime, women politicians in Enugu state like their other counterparts in other part of the federation have continued to express dismay over the low participation and alienation of women in the politics of the state. Consequently, in 2003 a female governorship aspirant, lauretta Aniagolu joined the race for the seat of governor in Enugu state. Unfortunately she was maneuvered in the party primary of the united Nigeria people party. She later joined the national conscience party and was defeated by her fellow aspirant Chimaroke Nnamani.

Therefore, the gap of the problem is on the issue of cultural disadvantage which might have impacted negatively on the women’s participation in politics and all sphere of life.

At best, women were strategically, through several means including cultural exclusion, reduced to the second fiddle offices of ‘deputy’ and ‘vice’. This development has raised several questions which remained largely unanswered, and has equally attracted many gender-related studies and intellectual discourse on gender-related matters. Against this background, this paper attempts to address some of these questions and thus, constitutes a gap-filling or gap-bridging in the ever increasing literature on gender studies in Nigeria.

1.3     Research Questions

To be able to find out the reason why women lag behind in political participation in Enugu state, the following questions have been put down as a guide.

  1. Has gender been a barrier to political participation in Enugu State
  2. Has cultural factors enforced the discrimination and marginalization against women over political participation in Enugu State?
  3. Has money politic hindered women participation to elective political offices in Enugu state from 1999 to 2016?

1.4     Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study include:

  1. To ascertain gender as a barrier in political participation in Enugu State?
  2. To identify the cultural disadvantages associated with the women absence in participation in politics with their male counter parts.
  3. To identify if the income status of women which hinders them from participating in elective offices in Enugu state between 1999 to 2016.

1.5     Significance of the Study

This study is designed to provide useful information and solution to the problems surrounding women participation in politics in Enugu state. It will correct all the notion and misconception that people of Enugu state have in terms of women and politics. The result of the study will make citizens of Enugu to understand that political participation is a civil obligation where both male and female have equal right and not meant for males alone. 

This study will provide Nigerian women with the fundamental reliability and understanding of the women and political participation in Enugu state, thereby keeping them informed on the mechanisms suitable for the promotion of gender equality in political participation. Thus, this work will also be more beneficial to women, especially those who are aspiring for political positions. It will serve as a basis for building structures that will promote the aspirations of women on gender equality in political participation, this research work will also be beneficial to policy makers in general, thereby including more women into the decision making process.

Finally, this study will help to restore confidence in women, thereby building a sense of belonging in them to collaborate with their male counterpart in driving the economy of the state and also give reasons and hope to women for a better turn-up in political matters or issues.

1.6   Clarification of Key Concepts

The purpose of conceptual clarification is to clearly define terminologies to aid understanding for the purpose of this work. The following concepts will be defined for better understanding.

Gender: gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behavior, activities and attributes a particular society considers appropriate for men and women. 

Gender Inequality: gender inequality refers to disparity between individuals due to gender

Women; women can be seen as an adult female person

Women’s Right: these are inalienable, integral and indivisible parts of universal human rights

Women Empowerment: this refers to the provision and availability of opportunity and services which enables women to actively participate and contribute to political, economic, social and cultural development of the nation.

Discrimination against women: discrimination is the practice of treating somebody or a particular group less fairly than the others. Discrimination of women stands as the practice of treating women less fairly than men in the society.

Politics: politics is the seizure of state power, consolidation of state power and usage of state power. It is also the art of governing especially the governing of a political entity such as a nation and the administration and control of its internal and external affairs.

Alienation: the concept of alienation is defined as the state of being withdrawn or isolated. It could be denying of someone’s right.

Culture: culture is defined as people’s way of life which includes their way of dressing, dancing, cooking, eating, greeting and speaking.

Political participation: political participation is a voluntary act which encompasses wide range of political activities, including voting at election, contesting for political and party offices, attending political rallies, joining political parties and many more. 

Involvement; to engage in the interest of something.

1.7     Hypotheses

  1. Gender inequality a barrier to political participation in Enugu state 1999-2016?
  2. Cultural factors enforced discrimination and marginalization against women over political participation 1999-2016?
  3. Money politics hindered women participation to contest for political offices in Enugu state 1999-2016?
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ASSESSMENT OF WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN POLITICS

Chapter One

Introduction

1.1 Background to the Study

In the third world countries and Nigeria in Particular, women seem to be at the center of any development activity. Women sustain mold and nurture life in every home, community and human society in general. Their activities and actions play very important role in the development process of our great country Nigeria there can be no proper definition of national development without the contribution of women to that development. Despite the immeasurable success recorded by women in other fields, very little attention is giving to them in politics. In Nigeria democratic leadership pattern has been constitutionally enforced irrespective of the gender and position in question. Yet gender issues has been in serious debate and discussion especially as it affects women politically even though women constitute about half of the population of the Nigerian State by the 2006 census.

In man’s primitive days, there was a high primitive division of labor between man and woman, men are recognized as the stronger sex, were to hunt for food while women the weaker sex played the primary role of looking after the children at home.

Gender role differentiation in human society has prescribe subservient roles for women, the belief being that lack the capacity of executing certain task considered to be the exclusive preserve of men. This practice persisted via the ages. Men naturally assumed the sole responsibility of performing outdoor more for physically and mentally demanding task while the domestic chores were reserved for the women.”

Dickson (1999) opines that civilization and the global shift in the world’s economy from mere subsistence to the more sophisticated technology driven economy, have modified traditional gender roles subsequently, there is little left to hunt, and professionals do the warning but still grow the food. In spite of the transformation of the human society, that has been occasioned by the new advances in technology, and has placed the male gender on the part of professional careers, the female gender has been left to wallow in the sordidness, squalor and cocoon of traditional feminine roles. The potentials of women as partners in the productivity of the human society are yet to be widely acknowledged and duly recognized. The outcome of this condition is widespread discrimination.

The fact that some cultural believes discourages women from participating in active politics, this implies that for women to participate in active policies: they have to be socially and politically empowered. Social empowerment means guaranteeing women freedom from all oppressive and discriminatory social and cultural practices and the value system that relates women to the background. In Yobe State, such practices facilitated woefully in impending the participation of women in politics. The more women are economically buoyant the better their ability for effective participation in polities.

In a presentation on Africa women, men, feminisms and masculinities: towards liberating all Africans at 36 Brixton road, London sw9 7DA (Ama, 2013). Presented that in traditional African society, particularly the pre-colonial era, the relationship between women and men had a chequered history that characterized the existence of three types system. The matriarchal system: that is female superiority; egalitarianism in which men and women shared power through their various roles and the emergence of male superiority and the consolidation of men’s power and control which constitute the most prevalent system. Part of this consolidation processes has been the development of the division of labor on the basis of gender, various restrictions on women’s effective participation in polities and the growth of an elaborate ideology of female subordination and submissiveness reflected in the social norms ethnic, taboos and customs. Despite their limitations, women have been able to make valuable contributions to the development of their nations.

With the advent of colonialism in Africa: modernization was introduced, it was expected to improve the standard of living, with women, men and children all benefiting. However, the changes and new technologies led to greater opportunities for men with women finding themselves in less advantageous position, the inequality of opportunities and treatment has had an adverse effect on the effective participation of women and in politics in the region and widened  between men and women in various spheres of development.

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