Tag Archives: Perception

CAUSES OF MARITAL INFIDELITY AMONG MARRIED WOMEN

PUBLIC PERCEPTION ON THE PREVALENCE AND CAUSES OF MARITAL INFIDELITY AMONG MARRIED WOMEN

ABSTRACT

Every society has its norms and values about sex in marital relationship. Infidelity in marriage is a social issue various society, religion, and age frown at. Married women are known to be chaste and faithful to their marital vows. This practice is gradually waning. This study examined the prevalence and causes of marital infidelity among married women in Enugu North local government area, Enugu State. The study was conducted between November 2017 and May 2018 based on a survey of 400 respondents through the use of multi-stage sampling technique. The information for this study was obtained from the respondents using questionnaires & in-depth interview. The stated research questions formed the basis for data analysis. The data were collated and analyzed using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) software version 20. The findings, among other things, show that majority of the respondents were aware that married women engage in marital infidelity. 77.6% agreed to sexual infidelity as the most common form of infidelity, and 28.5% agreed to economic support as the major reasons why women engage in infidelity through. Religious opposition and customs were found to have a significant influence on the attitude towards marital infidelity in Enugu North local government area. The researcher therefore suggests a need to educate the people on the health challenges and other problems associated with marital infidelity. This should be accompanied by sanctions for defaulters. Economic empowerment of women would go a long way in discouraging marital infidelity among married women in Enugu North Local Government Area of Enugu State.

 

CHAPTER ONE

 INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background of the Study

Marriage is one of the oldest institutions associated with human society. It is one that has repeatedly been emphasized in every society and constitutes the yardstick for the determination of responsibility in the families. Ofoegbu (2002)   defined marriage as an arrangement of social structure which results in the establishment of a relationship of a legal customary or religious bond between a man and his wife for the propagation of the family root through procreation and sharing of various types of other acceptable relationship norms. Marriage of some kind is found virtually in every society. But throughout the centuries, marriage has taken many different forms. Understanding of marriage contrasts greatly from culture to culture, some view the institution as endogamous (men were required to marry within their social group, family, clan or tribe), exogamous (marrying outside the geographical region or social group) or polygamous (allowing people (both men and women) to take more than one partner.

Denga (1990) as cited in Yahaya, Esere, Ogunsanmi & Onye (2008) states that marriage is a partnership contract without escape clauses because it connotes a lifelong arrangement where the couple should permanently survive a multitude of demanding situations such as illness, financial constraints and so on. At any given time in human history, a family comes into existence each time a marriage is successfully contracted. The family is the most important primary group and the smallest social unit in any particular society. Family setting is universal because the human society exists or has existed with some form of family organization. Akubue & Okolo, (2008) referred to family as any group of people who interact and communicate with each other such as husband, wife and children in organizational settings. In the Nigeria context, because of the phenomenon of the extended family system, the family is made up of married people, their off springs and immediate kith and kin and other dependents (Onwuasonya, 2006).

From creation, every society has its traditional practices such as loving one’s spouse, having sex only with ones partner among others, which are pronounced during marriage ceremonies are expected of couples to boost the image and self-esteem of their partners. Some partners deviate from these norms and exhibit it outside their marital homes. This has been a source of marital dispute and instability among couples. The negative outcome of this often times impacts the children psychologically and socially (Fernando, 2013). Contemporary society is bedeviled with marital problems which are not in accordance with the standards, norms and values of traditional society.

Marital fidelity has been known not only to keep a family together but also a generation of individuals that respect the sanctity of marriage. People get married with fidelity in mind but infidelity has always been documented to affect almost 80% of marriage around the world. Infidelity in marriage is a social issue various society, religion and age frown at, and as a result stringent measures are placed to curtail this act. In some societies, the penalty could be as stiff as death. However, infidelity strives leaving the people to wonder why it has taken a form of legacy passed from one generation to the other. (Ejaifo, 2012).

Infidelity in marriage is gradually becoming a norm. Female infidelity is the new trend because extra marital sex by men is socially tolerated and in many respects, even socially rewarded. The prevalence of married men’s participation in extra marital sex in Nigeria is well documented (Karanja, 1987; Onusuloye, Caldwell & Caldwell, 1997; Lawoyin & Larsen, 2002; Mitsunaga, Powell, Antonia, Heard, Nathan, Larsen., 2005). A report out of the Kinsey Institute at Indiana University found that for the first time in modern history, women are cheating at nearly the same rate as men. Another study, published in the National Opinion Research center’s 2013 General Social Survey, found that while the percentage of men who admitted to infidelity has held constant over the last two decades, the percentage of wives who reported having affairs rose almost 40 percent.

Before the advent of civilization, married women, no matter the conditions they found themselves never became promiscuous; they remained chaste and faithful to their vows. Cheating among Nigerian women is the new trend, which is abstract and very different to what was in existence two decades ago, when women were faithful, patient and more tolerating (Ejaifo, 2012).        

Against this background, this study is aimed at investigating the causes of marital infidelity among women in Enugu North Local Government Area of Enugu State.

1.2     Statement of the Problem 

Marital infidelity among women which was a rare phenomenon has apparently become common place today in the Nigerian society. According to a new report by Durex, a condom manufacturing company in 2012, Nigerian women are ranked the most unfaithful in the world with 62 percent.

Infidelity impacts strongly on the functionality and stability of relationship (Drigotas, Safstrom, & Gontlia, 1999; Whisman, Dixon & Johnson, 1997).

John Kester, a sociologist at the University of Lagos reports that infidelity not only hurts the relationship but has an adverse impact on family life, particularly if children are involved. When a mother is having an affair there is a different reaction in children, this is because the mother is still most often considered the focus of the family and of course when the child learns of an affair, he or she is in danger of testing confidence in the inability of marriage and family.

Research on marital infidelity shows that it  leads to marital strife leading to divorce, wife battering, prostitution in urban areas, children born of different fathers and the spread of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) (National Aids Control Council (NACC), 2007). Marital infidelity has been associated with increased risk of mental health problems, including depression and anxiety (Cano & O’ Leary, 2000).

Marital Infidelity by impacts negatively on the development in any given area due to its effect on people involved. Resources that are made for the development of the family are deviated to cater for extra-marital affairs and the treatment of HIV/AIDS (Kenya Forum, 2013). Infidelity by women could also enhance the spread of sexually transmitted disease (STD) such as gonorrhea, Chlamydia, syphilis, and many others. Reproductive health of the women are most times usually affected, thus resulting to loss of lives by the women or mothers, thereby making their children become orphans, or even school dropouts, thus becoming touts and juvenile deliquents.

Despite its negative effects on the health of their family members and the society at large, it is worrisome to observe that married women still indulge in extramarital affairs. What could be behind this rise? Could it be that married women are lacking some fundamental needs in family relationship which they seek to satisfy from external sources?

It is in view of these concerns that this study is being carried out to find out the prevalence and causes of marital infidelity by women in Enugu North Local Government Area of Enugu State.       

1.3     Research Questions

The following research questions were put forward to guide the study:

  1. What are the patterns of marital infidelity among married women in Enugu North L.G.A. of Enugu state?
  2. What are the attitudes of people towards marital infidelity among married women in Enugu North L. G. A. of Enugu State?
  3. What are the factors responsible for marital infidelity among married women in Enugu North L. G. A. of Enugu State?
  4. What are the challenges resulting from marital infidelity among married women in Enugu North L. G. A. of Enugu State?
  5. What strategies can be put in place to reduce or address the prevalence of marital infidelity among women in Enugu North L.G.A, of Enugu State?

1.4     Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study was to ascertain the causes of marital infidelity among women in Enugu North L. G. A. of Enugu State.

The specific objectives of the study were as follows:

  1. To find out the patterns of marital infidelity among married women in Enugu North L. G. A, of Enugu State.
  2. To identify the attitude of people towards marital infidelity among married women in Enugu North L. G. A of Enugu State.
  3. To ascertain the factors responsible for marital infidelity among married women in Enugu North L. G. A, of Enugu State.
  4. To investigate the challenges resulting from infidelity among married women in Enugu North L. G. A of Enugu State.
  5. To proffer plausible solutions/strategies that will help curtail the prevalence of marital infidelity among women in Enugu North L. G. A, of Enugu State.

1.5     Significance of the Study

This study has both practical and theoretical significance.

Practically, the study will help to resuscitate marriage and improve marriage relationship by helping married people to keep to their marital vows and have healthy spousal relationships. It will help to create societal awareness on the damages and harm of infidelity, if not properly curbed.

Theoretically, the findings will give first-hand information to religious leaders, marriage counselors, women organizations on the prevalence and causes of marital infidelity among women, with a view to give proper counseling to spouses either before or during the marriage sessions. With the knowledge, the curriculum planners would include issues that bother on family and procreation into subjects like, Sociology, Civic Education, Sexuality Education and Social Studies. Findings of the study will also add to existing knowledge and literature that have addressed the issue of marital infidelity among married women in Enugu North Local Government Area, Enugu State and Nigeria at large.

1.6     Definition of terms

Attitude: It refers to the way we think or view someone or something.

Couple: This refers to two people who are married, are living together or having an intimate relationship, as socially approved.   

Divorce: It is the legal ending of marriage between couples so that husband and wife are free to remarry again.

Early marriage: Early marriage is a marriage that occurs before a person reaches the age of consent (18 years). It is also known as child marriage.

Gender: It refers to culturally and historically specific concepts of femininity and masculinity. It reflects the power relations between men and women; social construction of sex roles between men and women.

Infidelity: It is referred to as cheating or adultery when married. It is a violation of a couple’s assumed or stated contract regarding emotional and or sexual exclusivity.

Marriage: In the context of this study, marriage can be seen as the legalizing of a special relationship between a man and a woman to which the society gives its approval. It places each partner under legal and social obligations to the other and to the society.

Pattern: A particular way in which something is done, or been organized or happens.

Prevalence: It is a term which means being widespread. It tells us about the number of particular events in the community.

Socio-Economic Factors: These are conditions that necessitate and sustain the status of individuals in family and community in terms of formal education, occupation, income, health and cultural freedom.       

 

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ATTITUDE AND PERCEPTION OF STUDENTS AND TEACHERS TOWARDS EXAMINATION MALPRACTICES

ATTITUDE AND PERCEPTION OF STUDENTS AND TEACHERS TOWARDS EXAMINATION MALPRACTICES IN SOME SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OSHODI/ ISOLO LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF LAGOS STATE

ABSTRACT

This research was carried out to investigate examination malpractice among secondary school students in Oshodi/Isolo Local Government area in Lagos State. The project examines the attitude and perception of students and teachers towards examination malpractice in secondary schools. In this research work, a sample of one hundred (100) respondents was collected using purposive sampling techniques from four secondary schools in Oshodi/Isolo Local Government. The research instrument used for the study was the teachers and students perception questionnaire which was validated by the supervisor and used for the collection of data from the respondents. The data collected from respondents were analyzed with distribution tables and simple percentage using likert scale. At the end of the analysis the study revealed the major reasons for examination malpractice which include parental pressure for good grades, peer group influence, inadequate preparation, and so on. The study further recommends that, good remuneration, re-orientation of teachers and parent, should be emphasized.

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

 

1.1       Background of the Study

Evidence abound of increasing incidents of examination malpractices by students at schools and colleges; which conflict with the core purpose of education-the training of the mind and character for the acquisition of practical and theoretical skills, knowledge and functional ideas for development; and the search for truth and knowledge and the creation and communication of ideas ( Aaron, 1992).

In Nigeria, the first publicly reported case of examination malpractice occurred in 1914 when there was a leakage of question papers in the senior Cambridge local Examination.

Ever since, there have been cases of irregularities reported on a yearly basis while the outstanding years were 1963, 1967,1970, 1973, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1985, 1987, 1991,1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001,2002,2003 (West African Examination Council, 2004). The major forms of examination malpractices reported are: Impersonation, bringing in foreign materials (books, calculator), substituting worked scripts, stealing, converting, misappropriating scripts; collusion in the examination hall (copying), mass/organized cheating involving assistance from teachers and outsiders; and insult/assault on supervisors/invigilators (Oluyeba and Daramola, 1992). This trend in examination malpractices is inimical to academic development and advancement and needs to be drastically addressed.

Examination malpractice can be defined as a deliberate act of wrong doing, contrary to official rules, and is designed to place a candidate at an unfair advantage or disadvantage; it is a careless, illegal or unacceptable behaviour by a candidate in a formal test of his knowledge or ability in a particular subject (Philemon, 2007). It could also be said to be an act of omission or commission which compromises the validity and integrity of any examination (Okwu, 2006). Examination malpractice is counter-practice that is against ethics of examination, it is an act of disrespect to all rules and regulations guiding the good conduct of any examination or any evaluation process.

Examination malpractice is an illegal or unethical behaviour by somebody in the process of testing an examinee’s ability or knowledge by means of question (Ikupa, 1997). Oluyeba and Daramola (1992) remarked that examination malpractice is any irregular behavior exhibited by a candidate or anybody charged with the conduct of examination before, during or after the examination which contravenes the rules and regulations governing the conduct of such  examination. Such examination malpractice will include any of the following: examination leakage, impersonation, cheating, collusion, swapping of scripts, smuggling of answer scripts in examination halls, result/certificate forgery, verbal/physical assault on examination administrators.

Similarly, Kibler (1993) defined examination mal-practices as forms of cheating and plagiarism that involve students giving or receiving unauthorized assistance in an academic exercise or receiving credit for work that is not their own.

In Nigeria the last two decades have witnessed an alarming rate of crisis of examination misconduct especially in the Secondary and tertiary institutions. It has been widely reported that parents aid and abet examination malpractices directly or indirectly because they even go to the extent of bribing their way through to ensure that their wards get unearned grades. The teachers on their part encourage examination malpractices because they lack the zeal to work and at the end would want to be praised for a job, which was never done thus graduating students who do not actually possess the abilities for which they were examined (Nanna, 1997).

Examination malpractice is not a recent phenomenon or is it peculiar to Nigeria or Africa; but it is a global issue (Ikupa, 1997). However, the alarming rate of its increase in Nigeria calls for novel ways to redress the situation. Examination misconduct has some social and psychological dimensions, which the counselor should address with holistic intervention. Good grades in any examination are gateways to further education and entry into the world of work. But if the value systems of our youths are well constructed, the examination ethics should be adhered to. According to Omoluabi (1993) and Uzoka (1993), our value system has broken down completely and so adults and youths alike act without moral scruples. The general emphasis in our society today is on materialism, bribery, corruption, cultism, sexual promiscuity, fraud, violence, certificate racketeering and a host of other social vices. Aina (1996) succinctly stated that, ethics and integrity are the solution to all the examination ills.

Hence, the social, political and economic structure of this nation is dependent on the promotion of examination ethics; and that hard work is a virtue which once cultivated takes one through life and forms the foundation for an enduring success. Alutu (2002) in a seminar to Secondary School students in Benin City on academic excellence drew students’ attention to the 3p’s —praying, planning and persistent hard work— to academic excellence. The students who were mainly from a Christian community were made to know that praying to God for success without matching it with good study plans and use of time and persistent hard work will not lead them to achieve the goal of academic excellence.

In the WAEC conducted examination in 1991, 30,982 students were involved in examination malpractices while 35,479 were reported in 1992. Shonekan (1996) opines that 1992-1995 a total of 2,818,679 candidates sat for the May/June and November/December Senior School Certificate Examinations and 350,902 candidates’ results were withheld for examination malpractices. Oriola (2003) reports that in 2003 JAMB (Joint Admission and Matriculation Board) 1,099,241 sat for the examination and 116,990 candidates representing 11.5% results were withheld for various examination offences. Jimoh(2009) states that the Federal Ministry of Education blacklisted and derecognized 324 secondary schools across the nation as centers for conducting public examinations from 2007 to 2010. The distribution of the schools that were found guilty of examination malpractice is shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Examination Malpractice in Nigerian Secondary Schools

       Zones

       No of Schools involved

          %

      North Central

            54

          16.6

      North East

            8

          2.5

      North West

            12

          3.6

      South East

            48

          14.8

      South West

            86

          26.5

      South South

            116

          36.0

TOTAL

            324

          100

Source: Week End Times, 17th & 18th February, 2007, p. 4

Table 1 shows the prevalence of examination malpractice in secondary schools in Nigeria. It occurs in all geopolitical zones in the country.

The phenomenon of examination malpractice seems to be aggravated by the large scale and shameful involvement of dishonest and greedy teachers, school heads, parents and all those who take part in examination administration (Ijaiya, 1998). The prominence assumed by this malady in the school system has become a source of concern to stakeholders in the education industry. Every examination season witnesses new and ingenious methods of cheating. The examination process has become endangered to the extent that certification has almost lost its credibility in the country. Certificates no longer seem to reflect skill and competence. Accusing fingers have been pointed at teachers, school heads, parents, students, examination officials and even security agents as those responsible for examination malpractice in the school system (Jimoh 2009).

1.2       Statement of the Problem

The persistent occurrence of examination malpractices has been a major concern to educationists. Despite the high premium placed on examinations by the National Policy on Education, it seems that examination malpractices have not been properly addressed in Nigeria. Common observations have shown that there is mass cheating in public examinations in the States. Nothing concrete has been done to reduce the problem except the cancellation of results for a particular centre or the withholding of results in certain subjects.

The perception of teachers towards examination malpractices differs from individual to individual and to a large extent from society.

However, the problem of examination malpractices has eroded the seriousness of students in studying and learning. It has deprived students from learning instead, they prefer going to examination hall with micro-chips, key points, even textbooks to make things easy in the examination hall. Thus the resultant effect of this illicit act is the production of half-baked graduates and invariably leading to inefficiency.

Therefore, this project sought to assess the attitude and perception of students and teachers towards examination malpractices.

1.3       Purpose of the Study

The broad objective of this study is to examine the attitude and perception of secondary school students and teachers in examination malpractices.

The specific objectives are:

  1. To examine the various factors influencing examination malpractices.
  2. To find out the motivating factor influencing examination malpractices.
  3. To determine the role of school authorities in aiding, abetting, and preventing examination malpractices.
  4. To examine what motivate teachers to partake in examination malpractices.
  5. To determine the roles of parents ,guardians and peer group in examination malpractices
  6. To make useful recommendations based on the research findings.

1.4       Research Questions

The researcher of this study intends to carry out a research on the issue which raises the following questions:

  1. What attitudes do students portrays towards examination?
  2. What are the factors that predispose students to examination malpractices?
  3. Is there any significant role played by school authorities towards examination malpractices for the students?
  4. Is there any significant difference in teachers’ perception of examination malpractices in secondary schools?
  5. Is there any significant role played by parents or guardians towards examination malpractices?
  6. Is there any significant role played by peer groups towards examination malpractices by students?
  7. What is the perception of teachers on examination malpractices?

1.5       Research Hypothesis 

  1. Ho:  There is no significant difference in the behaviour of students in the examination hall compared to when they are taught in the classroom.
  2. Ho: Inadequate examination preparation of students cannot lead to examination malpractices.
  3. Ho:  There is no significant relationship between school authorities on examination malpractices and secondary school students.
  4. Ho: There is no significant relationship in teachers’ perception toward examination malpractices in secondary schools.
  5. Ho: There is no significant role played by parents towards examination malpractices by students.
  6. Ho: There is no significant relationship between peer group influence and examination malpractices.
  7. Ho:  There is no significant difference in teachers’ perception of examination malpractices in public and private secondary schools.

1.6       Justification of the Study

The need to assess the attitude and perception of teachers and students towards examination malpractices cannot be underestimated in recent time and the outcome of this research work will be of immense benefit to the government agencies, principals of schools, teachers, parents/guardians and the society at large. This will provide useful information and guidelines for solving the problem of examination malpractices in secondary schools.

1.7       Significance of the Study

  1. The study will beam more light on the problem of examination malpractices in secondary schools
  2. It will help to enlighten education administrators on the principles of solving the problems of examination malpractices in schools.
  3. The research work will provide opportunity for better appreciation of educational certificate in the country.
  4. It will help in solving the problem of brain drain in the country.
  5. It will help secondary school student to put the right attitude towards learning and in examinations.

1.8       Scope of the Study

The canker worm of examination malpractices has eaten deep into the fabric of education in the country. This study will concentrate on the effects of examination malpractice, their causes, and possible solution in some selected secondary schools in Oshodi/Isolo Local Government in Lagos state.

1.9       Limitations of the Study

The major constraints to this research work is time required in administering the questionnaire and the writing of the thesis, as well as the cost of moving from one school to another in administering and filling of the questionnaire by respondents. Also, uncooperative attitude of some students and teachers in filling the questionnaire.

Lastly, the non availability of enough materials and literatures on the project topic constitutes a constraint.

1.10     Operational Definition of Terms

Examination: It is a way to ascertain how much of a subject matter in a particular field of study the candidate has mastered. In other words, it is a process through which studies are evaluated or tested to find out the quality of knowledge they have acquired within a specific period.

Malpractice: It is a failure of professional person to proper services through reprehensive ignorance or negligence or through criminal intent. It is also referred to as improper misconduct.

Examination malpractice: Is any act of omission or commission that contravenes the Rules and Regulations of the examination body to the extent of undermining the validity and reliability of the tests and ultimately, the integrity of the certificates issued.

School Authorities:  This refers to teachers and principals who are invigilators and supervisors of examination in schools.

Education:  It is the transmission of cultural renewal. It is the development of the mind and body (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains) of an individual in order that he/she may become useful to the society.

Educational Administrator:  This refers to someone who administers an educational organization of a unit within the organization either a system or an institution such as university, polytechnics, colleges, etc.

Teacher: One who educates and train others to learn .He is the person who impacts knowledge into others through some teaching skills and methods.

Curriculum:  This is a guide to the things students are taught in schools. Thus, the content of teaching and learning can be in the form of theory and practice.

School Facilities:  this refers to thing such as buildings, classroom chairs, tables, school hall, Field, Materials etc. that are useful in the school system and enhances effective teaching and learning.

Test Anxiety: This refers to the fear a student exhibits before, during or after writing a test.

 

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READERS’ PERCEPTION OF THE USE OF PHOTOGRAPHS

ASSESSMENT OF READERS’ PERCEPTION OF THE USE OF PHOTOGRAPHS IN NIGERIAN NEWSPAPERS

ABSTRACT

Photographs in news stories can stimulate opinion change, either making a reader love the good advertised, or making the reader hate it.  In view of the foregoing, this study sought to ascertain an “Assessment of Readers Perception on the use of photographs in Nigerian Newspapers.  The population of this study in Enugu metropolis was about 123 but 119 readers participated in the study. The objectives of the study were: To ascertain if the use of photographs in Nigerian newspapers contribute to attracting attention of newspaper readers in Enugu Metropolis; To determine if newspaper readers view photographs in newspaper as space fillers or as aid to readers’ understanding, To ascertain if newspaper readers view photographs in newspaper as aiding credibility to stories or they are used for aesthetic appeal. The survey research design was adopted for the study; data for the study was sourced from primary sources, while data was analyzed using simple tables, frequency percentage.  Source Credibility Theory was used as a model of analysis.  The study found out that readers have different reactions to written words and pictures that are displayed on Nigerian newspapers.  It was subsequently recommended that proper training be given to journalist to enhance their competence in the field of practice, placement of photograph should represent the idea contained in the text and the Nigerian Press Council (NPC) should investigate obstacles to the flow of information on print media, ethical and professional standards in the media must be upheld. 

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1      Background of the study

For many years, photography has played an increasingly important role in the various media of mass communication that use visual messages to disseminate information (i.e. books, newspapers, magazine, film, television; and the internet – based media) (Ijeh, 2015).  Photographs have been known to greatly stimulate public interest in current events and human angle stories presented by the visual media of mass communication, and have also made tremendous contributions to the civilization and advancement of mankind (Ezekiel & Ezekiel, 2007).

The power of photographs in mass communication stems from the common knowledge that photographs are more powerful than words in message dissemination hence the dictum; “A picture can speak more than a thousand words”.  This is because photographs speak a universal language and are better able to elicit the same emotions from people on different sides of languages and educational divides (Ezekiel & Ezikiel, 2007; Fasheke 2004).

In addition to creating a greater emotional response, photographs are used to capture a reader’s attention to an article. Visual images are the gateway to a news story. Communication professor at the University of Oklahoma, Michael Pfau, claims that people do not merely pick up newspapers and magazines and start reading.  Rather, they look at them, check the headlines and photographs to determine which stories they would like to read (Pfau, 2006). In previous research, eye-tracking software has been used to determine which articles are read first, proving that a reader begins their perusal of a newspaper drawn to the most striking features – typically the headlines and photographs. According to (Pfau, 2006), readers are more likely to view a photograph, first before reading a text.  However, he noted that combining both text and photograph makes it three times more likely that at least some of the text will be read. He also noted that previous research with an eye-tracking device has also proven that readers are drawn to larger photos over smaller ones, and color images over black and white versions.

To the general public, photographs are deemed as credible sources of information. Viewers are more susceptible to believe images that they visually see, rather than what they hear or read (Pfau, 2006). Photographs tend to be taken at face value, exactly for what they represent, while a photograph and text seems to be less credible because “readers sense that the words are authored, but the image is a true representation” (Kepplinger, 1976).

Conversely to  Anderson 1989 cited in (Kepplinger, 1976) argues that, “though the photographic image may have powerful visual impact, it does not have the ability to give any in-depth explanation of the event it presents to a world eager to be informed. It cannot tell what happened before or after an event; it cannot give political or social context, much less an analysis. The camera does not know which of the events it captures are historically significant and which are not. As John et al. (1989) have noted, a photograph is time frozen, a moment yanked out of its before and after” and therefore requires an added textual analysis to accompany an image (Andersen, 1989).

According to Eunson (2008), a “stand alone” picture refers to a single photograph, with a caption that describes its content, published on a newspaper or magazine page whose other text or picture content are not related to the photograph in question.  Here the photograph with its caption tells a story alone and not in any way related to other news stories on the same newspaper or magazine page.  A picture is said to be accompanying a news story, its images and captions are directly related to a contiguous text of a newspaper or magazine news report.  In this case, the photograph is used to support the story text. “Picture – based” news stories sometimes refers to panorama of photographs on newspaper or magazine pages.  Here, sets of pictures that present different aspects of a particular subject, event or phenomenon are printed on dedicated newspaper/magazine pages with no textual report.  The set of photographs, with the aid of their captions tell the story.

The newspaper is one of the largest users of still pictures.  In this contemporary digital media space where all the media of mass ,communication (both offline and online) compete for audience and readership; pictures have become a veritable asset for these media outlets.  This competition has necessitated and propelled newspaper to become more innovative in their use of photographs to attract and sustain readership.  While some schools of thought argue that pictures aid readership of newspapers, others argue that they are irrelevant and make little or no impact on readers. It is therefore imperative against the already established background to ascertain reader’s perception of the use of photographs, specifically in the Nigerian Newspapers.

1.2       Statement of the Problems

Visuals can have a dramatic impact on a reader’s involvement and feelings towards an event or issue.  Images on newspapers have a powerful impact on readers’ attitude and understanding, and this impact and understanding cannot be created by text alone.  In a news context, the presence of a photograph can significantly affect the consumer’s attitude towards the framed issue.  While some readers might perceive pictures in newspapers as a support for the texts, others perceive it as something used in filling up the newspaper and making the pages numerous. To some also, it is just an act which serves to draw attention to a big story and to further illustrate statements made in the story and give the readers’ more details about the information presented.

This study was conceived to ascertain the perception of newspaper readers in Enugu metropolis of the use of photographs in Nigerian newspapers.

1.3        Objectives of the Study

  1. To ascertain if the use of photographs in Nigerian newspapers contribute to attracting attention of newspaper readers in Enugu Metropolis.
  2. To determine if newspaper readers in view photographs in newspapers as space fillers or as aid to readers’ understanding.
  3. To ascertain if newspaper readers view photographs in newspapers as aiding credibility to stories or they are used for aesthetic appeal.

1.4       Research Questions

  1. To what extent does the use of photographs in Nigerian newspapers contribute to attracting the attention of newspaper readers in Enugu metropolis?
  2. How do newspaper readers view this use of photographs as space filler or aid to readers’ understanding?
  3. How do newspaper readers view photographs in newspapers as aiding credibility of stories or for aesthetic appeal?,,,,

1.5       Scope of the Study

This study is focused on assessing newspaper reader’s perception of the use of photographs in Nigerian Newspapers. The researcher chose to limit the study to newspaper readers in Enugu East metropolis.  Further research can focus on newspaper readers in other parts of the state and other states of the nation.

1.6     Significance of the Study

This study is considered relevant for various reasons.

  1. It will contribute to available literature on the use of photographs in newspapers. Specifically, it will fill the gap in literature on the perception of the use of newspapers in newspaper as held by newspaper readers in Enugu metropolis.
  2. For print media practitioners, it could throw some additional light that will guide their use of photographs in newspapers and other print media vehicles.

1.7       Operational Definition of Terms

Photograph: A picture created by projecting an image onto a photosensitive surface such as a chemically treated plate or film, CCD receptor etc.

Newspaper:  A publication usually published daily or weekly and usually printed on cheap, low – quality paper, containing news and other articles.

Photojournalism: A form of journalism in which a story is told primarily through photographs and other images.

Readers: People who read newspapers.

Journalism:  The process of news gathering and dissemination through publication to a specific audience.

Perception:  Organization, identification and interpretation of sensory information.

Assessment:    The act of assessing something.

 

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PERCEPTION OF FEMALE MASS COMMUNICATION STUDENTS TOWARD JOURNALISM AS A CAREER IN NIGERIA

PERCEPTION OF FEMALE MASS COMMUNICATION STUDENTS TOWARD JOURNALISM AS A CAREER IN NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

This research work focused on the perceptions of female mass communication students of Enugu state University of Science and Technology Enugu towards journalism as a career. The study aims at finding out the attitudes that are being displayed by female mass communication students towards journalism as a career. Survey method was adopted and the instrument used for data collection was the questionnaire. The population of the study according to the current attendance of ESUT female mass communication students were 370 girls out of which 192 were sampled using taro Yamani’s formula for getting sample size. Out of the 192 questionnaire were distributed, 190 were collected back. Data collected was analyzed in tables and simple percentages. The researcher found out that female mass communication students indeed have negative attitudes towards journalism as a career. The conclusion of the study was that female mass communication students have negative perception towards journalism as a career and there is discrimination, and there is discrimination against the female journalists in Nigeria. Again, it is also noteworthy that female roles as mothers and wives are some of the problems facing female journalists in Nigeria. This was evident on table 17 where 54% of the respondents affirmed to this. The study therefore recommended that media houses should make it as a point of duty to employ more of the female journalists just like they employ the male journalists.

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

In this age of information, everyone wants to be aware of the happenings around them. The media is the source of all that information, be it print media like the news papers, magazines and journals, the broadcast media radio and television or the electronic media like the internet etc. They are all called “journalism”. Journalists are those actually responsible for all that information believe it or not, they hold the power to influence the whole crowds with their firsthand information that they pass. It is their job to either be a part of the news that makes the difference or just utter rubbish in the name of information for the people to assimilate.

Journalism is a highly responsible job, and highly interesting at the same time. If someone is looking for a career in journalism, they should have a presentable and confident personality, along with the ability to write and present information accurately and consciously. Other essential requirements that highlight a good journalist are: an inquisitive bent of mind, good writing and communication skills, ability to differentiate between facts and fictions, intelligence, and interested in current affairs. Most importantly, must be capable of handling the unforeseen situation efficiently.

Journalism is the collection, preparation and distribution of news and related commentary and feature materials through such media as pamphlets, newsletter, magazines, radio, motion pictures, television, the internet and books.

The earliest known Journalists product was a newssheet in ancient Rome called the ACTA DIURNA published daily from 59 BC, it was hung in prominent places and recorded important social and political events.

Journalism in the 20th century was marked by a growing sense of professionalism. In our society today it has been observed that female student Journalists have negative attitude towards taking journalism as a career. This negative attitude is highly reflected in the number of mass media houses.  

Almost all institution of higher learning in Nigeria offer mass communication courses leading to the award of various degrees and certificates, including National Diploma, higher National Diploma, Bachelor, and master’s degrees.

The increases in the number of female graduates from all these institutions are not reflected in the media of communication in the country. Each Year, hundreds of female students graduate as mass communicators. A close look shows that the number of female Journalists students surpassed the number of males. But in the field today, a good number of these female graduates are not seen working in the various media houses scattered all over the country.

Reference to the convocation booklets from these schools revealed that a good number of female ass Communication students graduated from these schools. In the year 1997, about 150 female journalists graduated from Federal Polytechnic Oko. The Ogun state Polytechnic in the same year turned out about 86 female Journalist students and similarly. Between the year 2014 and 2015, Godfrey Okoye University Enugu graduated about 12 mass communication students of which 8 of them were females.

Similarly with other mass communication schools in the country for instance, in 1995, the convocation booklets of the University of Nigeria Nsukka, revealed that 45 female students graduated from the department of mass communication. In the year 2008, Nnamdi Azikiwe University (NAU) Awka, turned out about 58 female graduates from the Department of Mass Communication. Between the year 2008 and 2009, Caritas University Enugu graduated over 50 female journalists.

In other levels, the number of female students surpassed the number of male students in the Department of Mass Communication with a great difference.

In recent years, media houses in the western countries lack trained female Journalists in the various communication activities. Invariably, in Nigeria, this could be seen in most cases of the media houses in Nigeria. There has been an imbalance in the number of female, and male trained journalists working with them.

The Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) had about twenty five trained Journalists on its staff list. Five out of the twenty- five are female. The Daily Star newspaper has newspaper had only six female journalists as its staff. The situation is similar in other media institutions throughout Nigeria.

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem

This study was undertaken because of the low participation of the female Journalist graduates towards practicing journalism as their career. Despite the fact that there is considerably number of trained female journalists, very few of them are wiling work with media houses in Nigeria.

A large number of female Journalists are produced from different institutions offering mass communication, but female participation in the profession is very negligible. One thing that is glaring in the Nigeria media is the near absence of Nigerian women as news makers. Though Nigeria is developing, it has gotten to a stage where the female Journalists and their male counterparts should be competing in the media houses.

The number of female Journalists in the field today is seen to be very few compared to the number that graduates from Journalism schools and universities. This dormant attitude of females tow the profession has resulted to the males claiming superiority over them in the field and as such not portraying a good image for the women in the society. This is because most men in the society believe that Journalism exposes the practitioners and makes the female counterparts lose their dignity.

Many female Journalists who work in the media sometimes do not show keen interest in their jobs. This affects the female practitioners as the male practitioners always tend to over shadow them both in position and in interest to work. This study therefore tends to find out why the female mass communication students have such perception when it comes to females being in the journalistic field.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

  1. To find out female mass communication students see journalism
  2. To know if there is any discrimination against the women journalists.
  3. To find out if there are wrong in about female journalist.
  4. To find out if the female roles as mothers and wives contribute to some of the problems facing female journalists.

1.4 Research Questions

  1. How do female mass communication students see journalism?
  2. Is there any discrimination against the women Journalists?
  3. Are there wrong impressions about the female Journalists?
  4. Are the female roles as mothers and wives some of the problems facing female Journalists?

1.5 Scope of the Study

The study covered the whole female mass communication students of Enugu state university of science and technology. This attributed to the fact that the main focus of the study is on female mass communication students. . .

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study is very important because a lot of people are baffled over the issues of why women do not take up journalism as a career after studies. It has really agitated the minds of some professionals and has equally created a lot of controversies.

The researcher, therefore, has deemed it fit to find out the reasons for such negative attitude of females towards Journalism.

Journalism as the researcher could understand is very controversial and there no need to live on mere assumption. This study has therefore provided an avenue for an in-depth study on the controversial issue of knowing the reason behind women going into Journalism as a career, how do these women see the practice of journalism? Do they go into the study with the intention of practicing Journalism or taking it up just as a career?

The researcher also observed that female Journalists do not only disengage in the practice of Journalism but also do not contribute in the development and achievement of Journalism schools.

According to Okunna(1990) “In most schools in Nigeria, women are not often seen as lecturers both at universities and polytechnics”

They do not involve in the teaching of mass communication courses. Women prefer working in other fields to the career of Journalism.

The study will serve as a resource material for programme design and implementation in the effort concerning women in development and to students of women studies, mass communication, and Journalism. It will, be a useful reading and reference materials.

1.7. Definition of Terms

Operational Definition of Terms

STUDY: it is an act of considering or examining something in detail. It can also be said to be a piece of research that examines a subject or question in detail.

PERCEPTION: This is a way of: feeling or your opinion about something or somebody. The perspective you view an issue.

FEMALE: It is a situation of being a women or girl.

MASS: A large number of people in a community, Society, and nation.

COMMUNICATION: Methods of sending information to a large number of people, especially trough Television, Radio Computers, Newspapers, Magazines etc.

STUDENTS: These are group of people who are Studying at a university or college.

TOWARDS:- This is in relation to something or somebody, or in the direction of something.

JOURNALISM:-It is a new effort in reporting in which professional communicators use Social research method to gather, interpret and vividly present information to the target audience. Journalism is therefore, the science of reporting.

CAREER: It is the job or series of jobs that you do, especially if it earns you income.

 

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THE PERCEPTION OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS ON CORRUPTION IN NIGERIA

THE PERCEPTION OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS ON CORRUPTION IN NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

The study examined the perception of undergraduate students on corruption in Nigeria. The objectives of the study include among others, to examine how undergraduate students perceive corruption. In the course of this study, the Naïve Realism theory was employed in other to give an understanding of the problematic of the study. In the course of this research, both quantitative and qualitative sources of data collection were used. Thus, the study found out among others that undergraduate student perceived corruption in Nigeria beyond bribery and embezzlement. Based on the findings of this research, the study recommends among others that the National University Commission  (NUC) should liasise with the Ministry of Education and introduce a general course on corruption into the University’s curriculum so that undergraduate student will be educated on corruption. The anti-graft agencies should be independence to fight corruption to stand still in Nigeria. And a study of this nature should e encourage in the academia to make the citizens know more about the bane of our nation today. All the materials used in this research were acknowledge in the references.

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background of the Study

One of the greatest threats to economic and political development of any nation is corruption, therefore, the challenges of corruption remain a major devastating issue facing Nigeria since the colonial period, although, this phenomena has become a cankerworm that has eaten deep into the fabrics of our system. Nevertheless, its solution rest in our hands and cannot be put off to another day that is why many countries have put in place different mechanism to end the spate of corruption. Corruption in Nigeria has deeply entrenched in the national ethics, politics, civil society, Public and Private Sectors, and has been deeply permeated by a pervasive and debilitating culture so much that it is best regarded as been institutionalized. (Igbuzor O, 2008).

From 1st October 1960 to 2017 Nigeria had civilian and military regimes, and virtually all their inaugural speeches, addressed the fight against corruption was promised as a cardinal principle or advanced as a reasons for toppling a regime. The tough talk against corruption is followed by setting up of special committees or bodies to combat or investigate corruption charges. In 1975, Gen. Murtala regime set up an investigative panel which indicted all the twelve military governors that served under Gen. Yakubu Gowon (Akinola, 2002 cited in Danfulani, 2011).

The two military regimes of Generals Ibrahim Babangida and Sani Abacha were seen as the most corrupt in the history of the nation, yet during their combined 14 years reign, bodies like Transparency International did not rank them the most corrupt nation in the world. (Akinola, 2002). Ironically, the regime of chief Olusegun Obasanjo that resolve on set to make war against corruption a major agenda, got the worst ranking in the history of the nation. Throughout his 8 years reign from 1999-2007, Nigeria top the chat and never left the first five most corrupt nations in the world. (Akinola, 2002). One impeccable realism and feature of Nigeria is that, the more the revenue a regime has at its disposal, the more the scale of corruption. It is on record that the revenue that accrued to the nation’s coffers between 29th May, 1999 to 29th May 2000 surpasses, what accrued to Nigeria from 1st October 1960 to the day chief Obasanjo took over. (Akinola, 2002).

As Nigerian struggle to tame the psycho-social beast know as corruption, they have particularly beamed to searchlight on the behavior of public official (civil servant military and police personnel, elected official etc) and former public officials, contractors, business associates of public official. However, one sector of society that has escaped the penetrating searchlight is education. The educational sector seems to escape critical observation regarding the conduct of educational institutions and the faculties. Therefore, the war on corruption cannot be won without making a determined effort to purge the educational sector of the psycho-social beast. The world today is face with a large number of problems that threaten our survival on this planet. Not all part of the world, however, are equally hit by problems that rank among the most serious threats to the humans race; high rate of unemployment poverty, low level of education, poor technological development, level, gender discrimination, ethnic and religious inequality and high corruption etc.    

These issues are mostly related to the countries in the transition and developing parts of the world. However, in many developed countries, corruption is also endemic within educational sector. Namely, corruption entered this area and serious endangers schools, polytechnics and colleges as well as universities in Nigeria. Corruption in Nigeria’s higher institutions can be defined as “the systematic public office for private benefits, whose impact is significant on the availability and quality educational goods and services, and has impact on access, quality or equality in education” (Hallak and Poission 2002). Unfortunately, very little research has been carried out to compare the cost of corruption on education sector.

More than ever before educational institutions have become profit oriented in their struggle to survive; neglecting their basic function to train quality and adequate personnel’s capable to coping with the crisis which the modern world is facing with nowadays. Corruption is a major problem in a lot of countries, endemic in all sectors. But the one that is perhaps the most troubling is the education sector, most especial in the higher educational institutions of learning in Nigeria.

It is unfortunate the money meant for public education is delivered into the banks account of corrupt bureaucrats and lecturers are underpaid, and students end up paying high fees. Instead of lower amount as school fees, illegal charges of levied on students admission from, embezzlement of funds intended for teaching materials, school buildings, sub standard educational materials are purchased due to manufacturer’s bribe, bribe to auditors for not disclosing the misused funds which have negative effect on Nigeria socio-economy development of the nation in its entity.

1.2     Statement of the Research Problem

Corruption has remained an endemic that has undoubtedly eaten deep into the fabrics of the Nigerian society. It continues to pose greater challenge to our prolonged quest for political and socio-economic development. One of the major challenges of identifying corruption is the problem f perception. This posses a major problem to the effort to understand the causes, consequences and pattern of corruption in Nigeria. Ordinary Nigerians have their own perception on what constitutes corruption; some perceive it only in terms of embezzlement while others see it differently. Apart from the fact that corruption takes diverse forms (bribery, conflict of interest, embezzlement, fraud and extortion etc.), there is no broad consensus among undergraduate students on the meaning of corruption.      

When people talk about corruption, usually they refers to public fund siphoned or misappropriated by civil servant, contractor, politician etc. hardly do they think of the type of corruption that destroys the minds of our people and siphons the moral value of our society. This type of corruption is more dangerous and more serious threatening the feature of Nigeria. It is because of these ugly scenario that the researcher want to discuss the effect of corruption on Nigeria’s educational sector especially on the higher institution of learning in Nigeria. There is no doubt that educational institutions in any country are the industry in which future leaders, thinkers, politicians, teachers, workers and what have you are produce. In Nigeria, this industry has deteriorated to the extent that in place of being an agent of purifying the minds of our students to become usefully members of the society, the industry is now diverting the mind of the students from what education is all about.

It has long been observed that our graduates are no longer more measure up to the standards of both internal and external evaluators.

Corruption in Nigeria’s higher educational institutions of learning is very alarming and worrisome. This impediment has crumbled the country potentials. The quality education is the bedrock or channels through which every country producers her future leaders. In Nigeria, the sector has deteriorated to be an agent of purifying and sharpening the minds of the next generation to become useful members of our society has now turned to training ground for corrupt individuals.   

Corruption in Nigeria education sector (higher institutions) is the most dangerous aspect of corruption in the country. The degree of corruption that is taking place in the Nigeria’s higher institution of learning is worrisome and may collapse the country. Therefore, if urgent care is not taken the future of the country is bleak as far as any meaningful development is concern.

In most of the Nigeria’s higher institutions corruption has taken the lead in the process of admission exercises, the applicants are force to pay money before they could be offered admissions. The institution imposed all manner of illegal fees; most students do not attend lectures but bribed their ways to passed with good grade than their colleagues that attends lectures regularly. Most students in various higher institutions of learning resort to all kind of activities to ensure they make good grade in the institution. The female students brings themselves as low as going after some lecturers for marks, a good number of others engaging in their way sorting out by giving money to lecturers to pass them. Even the politicians send names of their candidates to some of the lecturers to pass them in their respective course. Some lecturers threatening the students that whoever did not buy his or her textbook, handout etc will not pass his or her examination. Some students hardly come to school yet when result is published, you will see them smiling while the few ones that study lament often get poor result or grade.   

Obtainable in other sector in the country, that Nigeria’s education sector has continue to suffer from unending scourge of severe corruption and incompetence over the years is not a difficult things to notice in Nigeria’s higher educational institution of learning, funds meant for educational projects are been mismanage without control, corrupt politicians are appointed on universities, polytechnics and colleges of education boards, who politicize the system, learning environment remains unconducive, academicians struggles to get their entitlements among other pressing issue confronting Nigeria’s higher institutions of learning.

Adude (2014) opined that the effects of corruption on the education sector were extensive and damaging because it endangers a country’s social, economic and political future. Corruption in the education affects more people than corruption in other sector, both in rural and urban areas basically schools are breeding grounds for future generations. Corruption threatens equal access quantity and quality of education.

Mohammed (2017); said that broadly, the spectrum of corruption in academic can examined in fourfold, the act of corruption as emanating and supported by the academics themselves (lecturers), the role students plays and contribution of the larger society. The synergy of these four constitutes the formidable phenomenon called corruption in Nigeria higher institution of learning. From whatever point of view one may think about the issue under study, the situation in Nigeria higher institution of learning is alarming and endemic in Nuhu Bamali Polytechnic in which almost every academic process there appear incidences of corrupt practices in it.

1.3     Research Questions

In order to guide the study and achieve the research objectives of the study, the following research questions were formulated:

  1. How do undergraduates perceived corruption?
  2. Do undergraduates perceived corruption beyond bribery and embezzlement?
  3. How does authors and scholars perceived corruption?
  4. Can corruption be eradicated in Nigeria?
  5. Are anti-corruption agencies playing there role to curb corruption in Nigeria?

1.4     Purpose the Study

The main aim of the study is to under the perception of undergraduate student on corruption in Nigeria. However other objectives include;

  1. To look at the way undergraduates students perceived corruption.
  2. To examine what constitutes corruption from the perspective of undergraduates students
  3. To examine the perceptions of authors and scholars on corruption
  4. To determine the possible ways of eradicating corruption.
  5. The understand the role of anti-corruption agencies in fighting corruption in Nigeria.

1.5     Significance of the Study

The significance of the study cannot be over emphasis. The study will serve as reference material for further research in similar area of study. It will also add value to the bodies of existing knowledge on the subject matter under investigation. The research will also serve as a guide to the educational stake holders as well as the general public on how to prevent and resist corruption tendency in the educational sector in Nigeria. Consequently, the findings and recommendations of the study will also help in reducing the image of the educational sector in Nigeria. In the eye of international community’s which sees Nigeria as the most corrupt nation in Africa.   

1.6     Scope and Delimitations of the Study

The research limits its scope to the perception of undergraduate students on corruption in Nigeria (2017- 2018) with specific focus on Kaduna State University. However, conducting a research of this nature certainly there must be some constraints such as time factor, insufficient funds, lack of free access to relevant literatures and poor cooperation from the respondents at process of conducting interviews and questionnaires administration to the targeted population of the study.

1.7     Definition of Key Terms

  1. Corruption: Advance learning dictionary define corruption as an act of dishonest or illegal behavior especially of people in authority.
  2. Educational corruption: Is define as the systematic use of public office for private gain whose impact is significant on the availability and quality of educational goods and services (Hallak and Poission 2002).
  3. Effect: Means impact or changes that something or somebody causes on other things or persons.
  4. Perception: Means the act of understanding a phenomenon or concept.
  5. Undergraduate: Refer to student in the higher college of learning in University first degree students.
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PERCEPTION OF STUDENTS ON THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL DEVIANCE ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

PERCEPTION OF STUDENTS ON THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL DEVIANCE ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

ABSTRACT

This study is designed to find out and examine the perception of students on the impact of social deviance on academy performance. A summary method was used for the study. 60 respondents (41 Male and 19 Female) were included in the study and they were student of Kaduna Polytechnic. College of Administrative Studies and Social Science. The first chapter discuses the background of the study, statement of the problem. Objective of the study, research question, significant of the study, scope/limitation of the study, the second chapter deals with literature review, the chapter three deals with method of data collection, the questionnaire is the basic instrument for data collection. The chapter four consists of data presentation and analysis, of the finding which is through the questionnaire. The concluding chapter of the research work which is chapter five, the summary, conclusion and recommendation and advice for further studies as for summary, recommendation will help both the lecturer and the school authority, the parents the government, and the students.

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Deviant behavior is a diverse and multidimensional concept. Usually two types of deviant behavior are distinguished: a) externalizing – marked by behavioral problems such as aggression, opposite behavior, conduct problem behavior, vandalism, robbery, and other kinds that may lead to unlawful acts; and b) internalizing – referring to emotional difficulties, such as anxiety, stress, withdrawal, somatic complaints and depression Achenbach (2000). Not only does deviant behavior have a negative impact on children’s psychosocial adjustment and development, but it may also disturb the school environment and disorganize the flow of educational process McNamara (2001).

Academic performance is defined as student’s progress, understood as the level of learning, comprehension and consolidation of the school curriculum Syngollitou (2003). Academic achievement is influenced by many psychological, family, school, and social factors.

Educational attainment is very important to future opportunities and many students look for much higher educational goals (schineider and Stevenson, 1999). Inequality of chances to achieve educational goals. (Hochchild and Scovronicity, 2003) and the school achievement gap associated with religion, raced ethnicity and gender in Africa society. Students who have high academic achievement are less likely to involve or indulge or engage in delinquent behavior than those who have lower academic achievement (Elliott and Voss, 1974; Henggler, 1989).

Students who have unsuccessful experiences in school are more likely to be involved/dingle in delinquent behavior such as dropping out of school (Voelkets et al., 1999) there are many risk factors for school dropout. These can be categorized into social and academic risk factors. Students at risk for dropout based on academic risk factors are those who often have a history of absenteeism and grade retention, academic trouble, and more general disengagement from school life. School grade are the most reliable predictors for student delinquent behavior focuses on:

  1. Student role performance factors
  2. School environment factors
  3. Family factors and
  4. Peer factors

Student Role Performance (SRP); factor is how well an individual fulfils the role of a student in an education setting. Sex, race, school effort, extra-curricular activities, time spent on homework, deviance disabilities and class preparation are all-important influences on SRP and have been shown to affect test scores.

School Environment Factors; such as school size, school rules and school problems, neighborhood and relationship between teachers and students also influence test scores (Crosnoe, Johnson, and Elder 2004).

Family Factor; One’s family background has also been found to influence student test score. Research has found that socio-economic status, parental involvement, and family size are particularly important family factors (Majorbanks 1996).

Peer Group; Peer influence can also affect student performance. Peer pressure and peer conformity can lead to an individual participating in risk-taking behaviours which have been found to have a negative, indirect effect on test scores (Santor, Messervey and Kusumaker 2000).

Research is still being done to see which comes first, the deviant behavior or low grades. Jessor, Bos, Vanderryn, Costa, et al., (1995) performed a study looking at the risk factors that can affect deviant behavior. When controlling for the demographics of gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status and grade, they found that low GPA is a significant risk factors liked to deviance (P<0.01). This supports the idea that having a low grade point average can be risk factors that leads to problem behavior. In their study of the pathways between self-esteem and academic performance, Liu, Kaplan, and Risser (1992) found that self-esteem had a significant negative impact on deviance, which had an inverse direct effect on motivation.

This is directly tied to academic performance (P<0.05). This deviance has an indirect effect on academic achievement through motivation. Kasen, Cohen, and Brook (1998) found that antisocial behavior, the risk of dropping out, and committing a crime all decline with higher academic achievement. First, a discussion of some of the dysfunctional aspects of deviant behaviour of students in tertiary institutions in Nigeria. These dysfunctional aspects of deviant behaviour can be broken down into four categories:

  • Students and Examination Malpractices

An example of deviant behaviour exhibited by students in tertiary institutions in Nigeria comes in the shape of examination malpractice. Examination malpractice refers to cheating in examinations designed to get unearned marks and pass examinations.

  • Students and Secret Cults

Fear is a powerful psychological energizer; it can also be a great demobilizer. Members of secret cults seem to understand and appreciate the impact of this elementary psychology and do indeed use it to the fullest. An important aspect of this operation, therefore, is to strike fear and terror into the minds of fellow students in order to destabilize and demobilize them. Their victims are thus dehumanized and terrorized to submission.

  • Students and Violence

Violence perpetrated by students in times of students unrest has been a long-standing feature of Nigerian tertiary institutions. A number of reasons can be adduced for students’ resort to violence in pressing their demands. Foremost among them is that there is the thinking among students that ultimatum and violence or threats of it are the only ‘language’ to which the authorities can be compelled to listen.

  • STUDENTS UNREST

Student’s unrest is not a new phenomenon in Nigeria. It began in the 1960s and has remained unabated, with the spate of crises in recent times. It is now more of a yearly phenomenon, a ritual that must be conducted before the end of each academic session. Students’ unrest involves mass rally/ demonstration, boycott of lecturers, barricade of entrances and exists to campus, chanting of war songs, display of placards, confrontation with the police and sometimes destruction of property.

As mentioned earlier, deviant behaviour also has positive values. A look at history confirms this statement. For instance, modem science emerged only when men felt free to question the doctrine of Aristotle and the Church. Socrates challenged the basic beliefs of the Greek society of his time; his particular sin was that he believed that correct action implied correct thought.

This study examines the relationships between deviance and the test scores of Student role performance factor are been seen bellow:

  1. Deviant students achieve lower test scores than non-deviant students net of other factors.
  2. Minority students are more likely to achieve lower test scores net of other factors.
  3. Students who attend extra-curricular activities achieve higher test scores net of other factors.
  4. Students who spend more time on homework are more likely achieve higher test scores net of other factors.
  5. Students who come to class prepared will achieve higher test scores net of other factors.
  6. As school disruptions increase, test scores decreases net of other factors.
  7. As school problems increase, test scores decrease net of other factors.
  8. As SES increases, test scores increase net of other factors.
  9. Students who have fewer numbers of siblings are more likely to receive higher test scores net of other factors.
  10. Students who communicate with their parents more often are more likely to achieve higher test scores net of other factors.

This study showed that those who are deviant do not tend to attain test scores as high as those of students who are non-deviant. The research also showed that within high conflict school setting there is a high proportion of deviant youth (P<0.001).

1.2     STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

This study is to investigate the impact of social deviance on academic performance. Deviance in a sociological context, describes actions or behaviours that violate social norms, including formally-enacted rules (e.g, crime), as well as informal violation of social norms e.g, rejecting folkways and mores.

The failure to conform to the customary norms of a community or society is what is known as social deviance. Social deviance is the violation of the societal or organizational norms, expectations, and values. It is the failure to conform to the conventional ways of doing things in the society or an organization. Social deviances are in different dimension. For example, juvenile delinquency, corruption, drug abuse, alcoholism, prostitutions, immorality, crime, dressing code and exams malpractice etc. these deviant behaviours manifestation constitute also major social problems on academic performance. Previous research revealed that deviant students will have lower test scores than non-deviant students who. Elliott and Voss (1994) and Henggler (1989) mentions that students who have high academic achievement are less likely to indulge in delinquent behavior than those who have lower academic achievement.

The upsurge of deviant behaviours in the Nigeria society is a matter of concern to all and has engendered research for its not causes. Some people attributed it to nature and the civil war of (1967-1970) which lives and properties were last thereby rendering some children orphans and homeless exposing them to various types of criminal activities consequently upon the take of parental control.

The deviant behaviour which followed the war among others include abuse of drugs, corruption and stealing and some area where the population was near extirpation due to death and diseases of the time, comities encouraged free interactions of boys and girls for procreation to prevent the communities from being extinct. The problem now arises because some teenager feels that such male and female relationship should remain a permanent norm of life in their communities. Scholars, researchers should have understood and seek out solutions to this ugly trend over the years. The researcher therefore is of the opinion that there are perhaps serious factors that bring about increase in deviant behaviours in Nigerian schools environment.

This is the more so considering the huge investment which both the Federal and State Governance should make in education and health sectors to produce a virile future generation. It is fundamental therefore to determine the influence of deviant behavior on the academic performance of secondary school student.

These acts have in no small measures being responsible for the rate of mental instability of youth who are expected to be good citizens and leaders of tomorrow in the society has been completely ruined in the school in which most o f them (students) acquired or learned it from individual factors such as gender, participation in extra-curricular activities, time spent on homework, and class preparation and behaviors from the peer groups as well as school environment factors such as family socio-economic status, the influence of siblings and family communication.

The questions someone may stand to ask are:

  • Is it actually the peer group that makes students to deviate from the school rules and regulations?
  • What prompt the students to join such groups?
  • How does a particular group mould their behaviours?
  • Is it actually the factors/child upbringing that makes students to deviate in the school or society?

To understand the full dynamic of deviant behavior with due emphasis on groups influence, it is necessary to find answers to the following problems/punishment:

  • What socio-cultural conditions are most likely to produce social deviance?
  • Why do people continue to deviate despite the negative sanctions that are brought to bear on them?
  • What benefit or otherwise do they derived?
  • How can deviance best be minimized or controlled?

This study therefore, aims at investigating perception of students on the impact of social deviance on academic performance.

1.3     OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of the research are on the perception of students on the impact of social deviance on academic performance.

  1. To identify the causes of social deviance among students
  2. To find out the types of deviance behaviours that is being practiced by students.
  3. Examine how deviant students can be helped.
  4. To find out the impact of social deviance on academic performance.

1.4     RESEARCH QUESTIONS

  1. What are the causes of social deviance among students?
  2. What are the types of deviant behaviours that are practiced by the students?
  3. What are the ways to examine how deviance students can be help?
  4. What are the impacts of social deviance on academic performance of students?

1.5     SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of this study cannot be over-emphasized because it is belief that the finding will be beneficial to individual parents and institutional agent (e.g teachers, administrators), government and future researchers.

The individual parents will find the finding of the study useful as it will reveal or exposes their weakness on their part and ways to handle their children so as to stop them indulging/involving in any forms of social deviance. And the institutional agent will find it easy to defined appropriate classroom behaviors.

The findings will also help the government agencies to put the necessary infrastructure facilities and to come up with good policies that will eradicate/minimized or controlled the involvement of students in social deviance/deviant acts. The work or study will like to carryout study on the subject matter.

Lastly, the study is in partial fulfillment for the award of Higher National Diploma in social Development department, college of Administrative studies and social sciences (CASSS) Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna.

1.6     SCOPE/LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The research is therefore, pertinent to point out that because of time, space and financial constraints; the work/study is delimited/ restricted to the college of administrative studies and social sciences (CASSS), department of social development ND II students, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna. And also restricted to perception of students on the impact of social deviance on academic performance.

The study will not cover whole department and as such, it is restricted/delimited to ND II students of department of social development.

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PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF THE INFLUENCE OF GENDER ON EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN IN ENUGU EAST L.G.A, ENUGU STATE NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

This study is based on the influence of gender on employment opportunities for women (A study of Enugu East Local Government Area). The survey research design was adopted and a sample size of 400 (four hundred ) was got using Taro Yamane formula out of the population of a total of (367,958) residents. 400 questionnaires were administered to the respondents and 330 was returned, which was used for the data.  The data for the study was gathered using a questionnaire. An in-depth interview was conducted as the qualitative instrument. Analysis was made through the latest version of statistical package for social sciences (SPSS}, which is a well known software for the statistically analysis of data, so that effective conclusion can be drawn and Chi square was used to test the Hypotheses. Simple random sampling technique was adopted as the sampling technique for the study.  From the study, one could summarize more evidently that there are several patterns of gender discrimination based on employment opportunities for women in Enugu East. It was discovered that there are many factors responsible for gender discrimination on employment opportunities for women in Enugu East; more so, the study reveals that there are consequences for gender discrimination on employment opportunities of women in Enugu East. Finally gender discrimination on employment opportunities for women can be reduced in so many ways. The study recommends that Government should ensure that we have more female representatives at the top in the private and public sectors by eliminating barriers against women working in certain sectors to increase output, and most importantly government and the society at large should create full and decent productive employment opportunities for women and access to finance, as well as provision of social protection. Finally the researcher suggested other topics for further research.

  

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background of the Study

In a masculine dominated society, women’s right has been misunderstood because of cultural, customary practices and beliefs which encouraged discrimination against women. Relying on traditional gender roles and child care responsibilities, some employers assume that female employee is less dependable than male employee. The idea of equality of sexes in employment is foreign to Nigerian native law and custom. Most entrepreneurs believe that females are inferior to their male counterpart and incompatible with a fast-paced business environment. Discrimination against women in places of work in Nigeria is so visible; this is primarily because of the high level of illiteracy and lack of skills among women compared to men.

Promoting decent productive employment and income opportunities equally for women and men is one of the key priorities of various governments across the world. Integrating gender concerns into employment and promotion can contribute to more effective boosting of productivity and economic growth; human resources development; sustainable development; and reducing poverty (ILO, 2018).

Gender differences in access to economic opportunities are frequently debated in relation to gender differences in labor market participation.

According to business dictionary (2018), gender is defined as the culturally and socially constructed differences between men and women that vary from place to place and time to time. The term “gender” refers to economic, social and cultural attributes and opportunities associated with being male or female.

According to 2006 national population and housing census, Nigeria’s population was 140.4 million (FGN, 2009). Women constitute about 49% of this population in Nigerian State and are known to play vital roles as mothers, producers, managers, community developers/organizers etc. Their contribution to the social and economic development of societies is also more than half as compared to that of men by virtue of their dual roles in the productive and reproductive spheres.  Okonjo (2017) argues that greater management of household resources by women, either through their own earnings or cash transfers shows that if given opportunities to occupy top positions, they can enhance growth by spending in ways that benefit the society. Research evidence have shown that women don’t earn as much as men and the average salary of women is 72% to 88% of men, even with variables such as education, age, position and job tenure considered (Waisman & Larsen, 2008). We can assert that male/female equality according to Marxist theory is the involvement of women in production outside home.       

Employment is one source of empowerment for women, given that it enables them exercise control over their own income and by extension their lives. Employment is one source of empowerment for women but unfortunately it is difficult to measure their employment status because the informal sectors are not reported. However, the data on hand indicates, for instance, that women and men currently employed in the North West are 46 and 54 percent respectively. Also, the employment rate of men to women in urban area is ratio 42:37 while the employment ratio of men to women in the rural area is 63:58.
In recent times, there has been a great deal of concern about the discrimination in the labour market based on gender considerations. Specifically, several practices, beliefs and stereotypes are held against the female gender as regards their suitability for certain jobs, eventual employment and advancement on the job. It is extremely difficult in some societies for women to go beyond a particular level in their chosen careers. Some jobs are perceived as the exclusive preserve of the male gender, while women are taken to be the weaker sex and therefore, should be employed in those areas where their weakness can be managed or tolerated. Even in the face of modernization, most people still hold on to the view that the woman’s place should be in the kitchen and therefore it is non-traditional for women to engage in paid jobs outside the home. The implication of these is that the rate at which women participate in the labour force is dictated by societal norms and stereotypes. The participation of the females in the labour force of Nigeria is still considered relatively low. The low participation rate may be because the males most of the time constitute the main employers of labour. This in turn gives them the opportunity to express their feelings and attitude towards the employment of the female gender, Effa (1995) findings support this notion. 75percent of male employers prefer employing the males to the females. The study goes further to suggest that the males are preferred to their female counterparts because the former are presumed more likely to ensure maximum productivity and efficiency. Other reasons being given include the number of times the female is likely to absent herself from work due to sickness, maternity leave, childcare and other domestic issues. An important question then arises, should the female gender be denied employment in the labour market and thereby reducing the participation in the labour market because of their natural/traditional roles as mothers and home makers which society has assigned to them?

However, despite some progress over the last few decades, gender equality in employment remains an elusive goal in all societies. Women continue to face certain problems and discrimination in all areas of economic life. The government of many developing countries in the last decade has focused on issues relating to gender disparity and this disparity was found in work places. In Nigeria today, the idea of equality of sexes in different places of work is foreign to Nigerian native law and customs. Discrimination against women in employment in Nigeria is so visible, primarily due to the high level of illiteracy and lack of skills among women compared to men. In fact, the country ranks 118 of 134 countries in the Gender Equality Index.Even when they are represented, they are discriminated against. No wonder the government has put a law that in every sector of work/employment, women should take at least 30% (Oakley 2000). Even with this, there are rarely any organizations that women have such, except in some professions that are considered feminine, which include nursing, teaching etc. Relying on traditional gender roles and child care responsibilities, some employers assume that a female employee is less dependable than a male employee. Most entrepreneurs believe that females are inferior to their male counterpart and incompatible with a fast-paced business environment.  This has led to series of discriminatory activities against women which comes in diverse forms such as direct gender discrimination which occurs when women are treated differently at work and an example includes disparity in salary based on gender.

1.2   Statement of the Problem

It is against this background that this study intends to examine the influence of gender on employment opportunities for women in Enugu East local government area. Despite some progress made over the last few decades in increasing women’s participation in the work force and narrowing gender gaps in wages, gender equality in the labour market still remains an elusive goal. While millions of women have become successful entrepreneurs, women are still grossly underrepresented in the boardroom of companies across the world. Particularly, in the developing world, women continue to form a large majority of the world’s working poor, earn less income, and are more often affected by long-term unemployment than men. This is due to women’s socio-economic disadvantages caused by gender-based discrimination and their double roles of being a worker and a care taker of the home. Olawoye (1995) describes Nigerian women as a crucial factor in production. According to her, they are largely responsible for the bulk production of crops, agro-based food processing, preservation of crops and distribution of yields from farm centres to market in both rural and urban areas. Nigerian women are contributing their quota to the development of the nation, but their potentials seem not to have been fully tapped due to some constraints. Disparities still exist between men and women in education, employment and income opportunities, control over assets, personal security and participation in the development process (Rahman & Naoroze, 2007). This may be as a result of lingering constraints including poor economic condition of Nigerian women, lack of adequate legislation and policies to support the rights of women, unequal access to education, limited access to land, lack of assertiveness among women etc.

Furthermore, women continue to embark on many unpaid care jobs, which has become an increasing challenge in their efforts to engage in productive work. Thus this study intends to find the influence of gender on employment opportunities for women Enugu East Local Government Area. 

1.3   Research Questions

As a result of the problems mentioned above, this study seeks to answer the following research questions:

  1. What is the pattern of gender discrimination on employment opportunities for women in Enugu East Local Government Area?
  2. What are the factors responsible for gender discrimination on employment opportunities for women in Enugu East Local Government Area?
  3. What are the consequences of gender discrimination on employment opportunities for women in Enugu East Local Government Area?
  4. How can gender discrimination relating to employment opportunities for women be reduced in Enugu East Local Government Area?

1.4   Objectives of the Study

The general objective of this research is to determine the influence of gender in employment opportunities for women, with special preference to the people of Enugu East local government Nigeria. The specific objectives include the following:

  1. To find out the pattern of gender discrimination on employment opportunities for women in Enugu East Local Government Area.
  2. To examine the factors responsible for gender discrimination on employment opportunities for women in Enugu East Local Government Area.
  3. To examine the consequences of gender discrimination on employment opportunities for women in Enugu East Local Government Area.
  4. To find out how gender discrimination on employment opportunities for women can be reduced in Enugu Local Government Area.

1.5   Significance of the Study

The study will have both theoretical and practical significance. The theoretical aspect of the significance of the study is that subsequent researchers may find this study as a foundation for further research on the influence on gender on employment opportunities for women. This research will be of immense importance to a large number of people ranging from the researcher to the government and various nongovernmental organisations.

Practically, the study will provide useful information that will shade more light on the difficulties encountered by women in the area of employment opportunities and proffer possible solutions to the government on how best to solve it.

The research work is of importance to the researcher as it is a basic requirement for the award of a university Bachelor of Science degree. Finally, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) may find this research and its recommendation very useful in protecting the rights of women in respect to securing employments.

1.6   Definition of Terms

Discrimination:– Distinct treatment of an individual or group to their disadvantage; treatment or consideration based on class or category rather than individual merit.

Employer:– A person who pays for or hires the services of another person.

Employee:– A person who provides services to a company or another person, in return for salary or wages.

Employment:- The work or occupation for which one is used and often paid

Employment Discrimination:- This generally occurs when an employee is intentionally treated differently because of gender, race, colour, religion, national origin, disability, sexual orientation or age by the employer in either the phases of hiring, discipline, performance appraisal or termination of appointment.

Employment Opportunity:- Employment is an arrangement between employer and an employee that the employee will provide certain services on the job. The work will occur in the employer’s designated workplace, the work is designed to accomplish the employer organization’s goals and mission and in return, the employee receives compensation. This is an employment practice where employers do not engage in employment activities that are prohibited by law

Gender:- The division of people into various categories such as male and female, with each having associated clothing, roles, stereotypes, etc

Gender Discrimination:- Gender discrimination is an adverse action or differential treatment against a person which would not have occurred if the person was of the opposite sex.

Sexual Harassment:- Sexual harassment is defined as unwelcome sexual advances or conduct of a sexual nature which unreasonably interferes with the performance of a person’s job or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment.

 Woman:- A female adult.

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Perception of Journalists on the Freedom of Information Law

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background to the Study

The Freedom of Information law (FoI Act) is Nigeria’s major legislative response to redress the balance of official secrecy, elitism and non-accountable government. It guarantees a “Right to Know” or a right of access to records and information in the custody of public institutions in Nigeria; set standards for what the government could protect from access, and fastened a system of judicial review of denial of access to information (FoI Act No. 4, 2011).

The FoI Act was achieved at the end of nearly two decades of public advocacy and exactly one hundred years after the Official Secrets Act (Cap 03, LFN, 2004) was first introduced into Nigeria as a colonial Order-in-Council. The idea of a freedom of information law for Nigeria was conceived in 1993 by three different organizations working independently of each other. The organizations, Media Rights Agenda (MRA), Civil Liberties Organization (CLO) and the Nigeria Union of Journalists (NUJ), subsequently agreed to work together on a campaign for the enactment of a freedom of information Act. The objective of the campaign was to lay down, as a legal principle, the right of access to documents and information in the custody of the government or its officials and agencies as a necessary corollary to the guarantee of freedom of expression (FOI Coalition, 2003).

Over the years, the agitation for the emergence of a freedom of information, has been on the front burner of national discuss, especially among mass communication practitioners in Nigeria (Sambe, 2008). This owes largely to the fact that the expediency of having a legislation that guarantees a high level of freedom information cannot be ignored. It cannot be ignored apparently against the backdrop of the attendant positive effect it could have on any society.

The need for a Nigeria Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) had been emphasized by many jouralist and scholars. For instance, Ogbondah (2005) did note prior to its enactment that: “The National Assembly should enact or guarantee the press and members of the public the right of access to government-held information including computerized records.” Also, at 5th Wole Soyinka Centre Media Lecture held in 2013 threw up significant issues on Nigerian FOIA that impunity has continued despites elaborate media reports on corrupt persons and practices (http://www.chidoonumah.com). Professor Biodun Jeyifo of Harvard’s African American Studies Department, in his lead paper gave a treatise of Nigeria’s disturbing status under the theme “the FOIA and the dictatorship of corruption and mediocrity”. The outcome was that there is need to increase the awareness on the FOIA to Nigerian citizens and propagate its usefulness as a tool to tackle the now endemic issue of corruption, mediocrity and impunity in the country (http://www.chidoonumah.com).

Similarly, Abia (2012) at some point, wrote thus about the FOIA Bill when passed into law as an Act of Parliament, it will make public record and information in the custody of any government-Federal, State or Local available to every person in Nigeria. Accordingly, the right of access of official information, which the Bill grants will be legally enforceable; with the Freedom of Information Act, it will be possible to find out from Governors, Council Chairmen, Ministers, the President or other public officers, details of any transaction conducted in those offices. The law, it is believed, will also give protection to public officers who discover the perpetration of a fraudulent act and reveal is thereby discouraging corruption among public office holders.

More so, Ogbondah (2003) stated that a democracy works best when the people have all the information that the security of the nation permits. Before now, the challenges posed by information law that inundate the Nigerian constitution, have made the process of data sourcing, gathering and dissemination, seemingly impossible for journalists (Daruwala and Nayak (2007). The realization of this objective is contingent on the freedom of information law to function without any hindrance.

Journalists also set agenda, organizes public debates and discussions, and interprets issues to put them in proper perspectives to make meaningful to audience. Through these roles, lecturers educate, inform, socialize and also confer status, values and significance to issues, thereby serving as the mouth-piece and defender of the voiceless in the institution (Sambe, 2008). This role of gathering and disseminating has not been an easy one largely due to limited freedom occasioned largely by government firm grip and control of the institutions. journalists have had no access to vital information let alone the public regarding the Act. In struggling to get detailed, factual and balanced ideas, journalists have had to continue to nose around for information, exposing themselves to high levels of risk that got them victimized and sometime get killed in the process (Ezeah, 2004).

Unfortunately, the journalists and the media being the watch-dog of the leaders and both cannot successfully carryout this sacrosanct function, without the ample freedom to seek, gather, analyze and disseminate information (Soeze, 2005). Taking a cue from the functional aspect of the freedom of Information Act, Yalaju (2006) averred that the right of access to information is aimed at strengthening the media by securing and protecting freedom of expression and the press particularly.

It is against the above grounds that the FOI Act seeks to make information more available to journalists in the same way it would be available to every other person who might request any information (Edetaen, 2012). It is also expected that with the law in effect, the people would have access to more accurate information, which would enhance the participation of public in decision making. There is no gain saying the fact that the Nigeria Freedom of Information Act was proposed in the context of international affirmation of the rights of citizens to access information held by public bodies as fundamental human right. It is therefore instructive to note that the FOI Act is one of the criteria for gauging a truly democratic state. It goes without saying that democracy is at its best, when the people have all the information that the constitution of the nation permits.

 Conversely, the stiff resistance by most world leaders towards having the FOI law enshrined in their nation’s law books has continued to ignite concerns. Little wonder, Amadi (2003) argued that: “The issue of the enactment of an emphatic Freedom of Information law is still a pawn in the political chessboard of politicians. The reason for sitting on such legislation may not be farfetched from the fact that such venal politicians know that the enactment of such powerful pro-media, pro-people legislation will constitute an effective check on their venality.”

The delay in the passage of Nigerians Freedom of Information Act over a decade after its first proposal in 1999 might not be unconnected to this apprehension amongst Nigeria politicians. Furthermore, if the media must discharge their duties in the spirit of fairness, accuracy, balance and objectivity, then there should not be an alternative to getting information from the primary sources (government and their agencies), the absence of this is likely to lure the journalists into “speculative information” or worse still rely upon secondary sources, which may be misleading and biased on the decoder which are basically the public (Ifeoma and Gregory, 2014). It is therefore against these backdrops that this research seeks to evaluate the FOI law and how well it rubs off on journalists in Nigeria.

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AUDIENCE PERCEPTION OF “GARI YA WAYE”, LOCAL MAGAZINE PROGRAMME ON DITV KADUNA (A Case Study of Unguwan Sanusi)

ABSTRACT

This research project examines the perception of the residents of Unguwan Sanusi, Kaduna over the popular Hausa programme, “GARI YA WAYE” on DITV. It relies on the assumptions that audience members have a disposition towards certain programmes they are exposed to. The research adopted survey in testing the questions raised and drew conclusions from the findings, part of which justifies the popularity of the programme.

 

Chapter One

INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background of the Study

In the 21st century, the television as medium remains a potent means of communication. Its relative advantages of both sight and sound makes it highly advantageous over other channels of mass communication. Mc Quail (2008) noted that television has been a means of communication purposes and effects, although most television contents are not live, they often seems to create an illusion of ongoing reality and thus can create perception in the minds of the active viewers. There is a sense of intimacy and personal involvement which is cultivated between the spectator and presenter or actors and the participants on the television screen.

The extent of television dominance in the lives of people cannot be underestimated because television stemmed from its capacity to transmit sounds and pictures thus act as a window of the world. The status of television as the most massive of the media in terms of reach, time spent and popularity has barely changed over (30 years) and it adds all the time to its global audience (Mc Quail, 2008).

Television in Nigeria has concentrated almost entirely on institution and public function that make news pay for television and patronize it (Sobowale, 1992). He added that events that are not official or semi-official or those not related to institution hardly covered by media housed especially the Nigeria Television Authority (NTA). This assertion makes this research work imperative given the possible perception audience may likely have on the programming content of relative television station.

The media role in public perception has undoubtedly influenced studies or researches in the past. As a result of the power and impact of mass communication, media targeted messages may have considerable influence on the perception of audience members over a programmed content, accordingly. The mass media especially television can therefore bring its massive audience into a direct relationship with particular set values attitudes and beliefs and also influence individual disposition.

Odukomaiya (1992) asserts that to this extent, therefore local programming contents in television especially in local language may be of considerable interest and thus, have considerable impact on the local audience. The broadcast media especially television became one of the major contributions to direct change of individual opinion attitude or behavior (Boluwade, 1999). Psychologically and naturally, people learn about their social environment and respond to it; it is assumed that whatever people see on it, is true and they seem to be influenced by those things.

According to Gerbner (1990), television blends that mainstream reality into the culture of mainstream television. Television tends that mainstream reality to its won and it sponsor institutional interest. The impression is that the citizens of Ungwan Sanusi, Kaduna may tend to watch “GARI YA WAYE” programme frequently on television at the convenient for personal consumption.

        THE PROGRAMME “GARI YA WAYE”

“GARI YA WAYE” is a Hausa feature programme aired by Desmims Independent Television (D.I.T.V.) Kaduna, a private broadcast media outlet. The programme falls under news and current affairs department and deals current and topical issues bothering the society. It is inform of interactive programme using telephone calls from numerous listeners and viewers from the catchment area of Kaduna.

The programme is broadcasted simultaneously by both Radio and Television channels for the benefits of the rural dwellers that do not have electricity or the signal could not be reach. “GARI YA WAYE” commenced broadcast on the 1st of January 2006 by late Khalifa Baba Ahmed, the Executive Chairman of the corporation then. The programme is aired five times a week by 6.30am to 9.00am, except Fridays and Sundays with two (2) presenters – Salisu Umar and Khadiza Molid and fifteen (15) reporters as co-presenters.

The audience of this prominent Hausa programme “GARI YA WAYE” are often allowed to freely talk, comment on the topical issue of discussion or any report shown in the programme.

1.2     Brief History of DESMIMS INDEPENDENT TELEVISION (D.I.T.V.) Kaduna.

DESMIMS INDEPENDENT TELEVISION is a veritable source for enlightenment, entertainment, information and news about Nigeria and Overseas – sixteen hours a day. DITV programmes are unique blend of reports, magazine programmes, information and culture with current affairs reports, documentary about politics, business, the art and sports. DITV strives to provide vital background information to keep its viewers up to date with what is happening worldwide. This explains why the station is the preferred agency for all advertising company.

It was incorporated in (1986) and adventually started production in Kaduna in the 3rd quarter of (1990). In June 1993, the company was granted a license for television broadcasting and redistribution.

In the history of deregulated broadcasting in Nigeria, DESMIMS Broadcast Nigeria Limited was the first toutilized it license to go on air on the 2nd of June 1994 at exactly 22 minutes past 5pm. DITV was therefore the first private broadcasting station in Nigeria. The Ultra modern Radio and Television studios are co-located on Sambo Close, GRA Kaduna, in a prestigious exclusive architectural building with impressive cultural façade, while the administrative offices allocated at Sokoto Road, where an extra-large, all purpose studio is situated. This is linked with other studios in the new building with underground cutting age technology of fiber optics cables.

The Radio and Television transmitter metres are in solid states and full digitalized. A 300 – foot self-supporting mast carriers both the Radio and Television antenna.

The 10KWatts FM stereo Radio transmitter effectively cover all part of Kaduna State and even beyond, while the 5KWatts television transmitters provide strong and clear signals to all the 23 local government areas of the State including outlining districts of the neighbouring States. The stations programmes are designed cater for the social cultural interest of the diverse people of the states and are mainly targeted to specialized groups of viewers and listeners.

DITV has a large number of viewership, particularly women and children who always remained to the stations for the programmes that appeal their sensibility. Often keeping them delighted, enlightened and entertained. The television station broadcast it signals on channel 38 UHF, while the Radio programmes are received on 97.7 MHz on the FM band.

The Alheri Radio is intended to broadcast exclusively in Hausa language so as to have a broader outreach to grass-root simply because Hausa is the lingua franker of more than 50 ethnic groups in Kaduna State. The specialty of Alheri Radio is the broadcast of 30min comprehensive news and reports in Hausa at 2hrs interval about daily happenings from all part of the States and the country in general. There is a robust dynamic commercial department staffed by energetic young men and women sufficiently motivated to embarked on an aggressive drive for advertisement which are heavily discounted when aired simultaneously on radio and television. DITV Radio and Television have become a household names having endeared themselves to heart of the young and old. No wonder the station profile is the rising higher and higher and it now towers up rightly among its peers.

1.3   Brief History of Ungwan Sanusi, Kaduna

This study cover the Ungwan Sanusi community in the area of Kaduna North Local Government Area of Kaduna State. The Ungwan Sanusi is one of the oldest settlements now presently located within metropolitan Kaduna; hence it is less than 500 metres away from the seat of  power – governemtn house (Sir Kashim Ibrahim House), Kaduna.

This area is said to be established since colonial era around 1950. It was narrated that the then Governor-General, Lord Lugard used to ride on horseback to the first three (30 houses built in the area to pay homage to the traditional ruler, Sarkin Anguwar Sanusi Mallam Sanusi (Sa’adu 2011).

Angwan Sanusi is politically delineated at “ward 10”. It is bordered by Badiko on the North, by Rigasa area (Nnamdi Azikwe Western bypass) by the West, Tudun Wada (Sabon-Gari) by the South and Tudun Nupawa/Kaduna Polytechnic to the East Ungwan Sanusi, according to the 2006 population figure is one of the most populated areas within Kaduna North Local Government with about 600,000 inhabitants. It is narrated that most of the people living in the area are Hausa/Fulani with almost a quarter of the population speaking English Language (Mallam Zubairu A. Sada, 2006).

The most prominent economic activities of the people of the area are farming. There are residents in Ungwan Sanusi who do not farm but engage in business. Other categories of residents are civil servants. There are few markets and several institutions, primary, secondary, and vocational schools and health institutions including a Federal Tertiary Institution, Kaduna Polytechnic. Some of the institutions are Maimuna Gwarzo Day Secondary School (Girls), Bintaya Computer Training Centre, Danfodio Vocational Training Centre and Sabon Gari Health Centre. There is also a hospitality facility in the area, Bananddini Hotel.

Ungwan Sanusi is laid out with several township linkage roads such as Gamagira road, Chawai road, PRP  road, Dabban road, Kogama road, Mohammad Wule road, Kudandan road, Magaji close, Rahama close and Imam road.

1.4     Statement of the Problem

 Despite the tremendous contributions made by the media especially broadcast media in the societal development through various programmes. Researchers like Browser (2000), Klapper (2004) and Ecliz (2007) confirmed that the media do not create the needed awareness which includes informing and educating members of the public. Similarly, the media are accused of being bias in their programmes in terms of priority and orientation (Vitriolic et al 1969) and mislead people through airing of programmes that are not factual.

Based on these criticisms labeled against the mass media about their inability to effectively inform and educate their teaming audience, this researcher set out to find out the true perception of Kaduna Residence on the DITV Hausa programme “GARI YA WAYE”.

1.5     Aim and Objectives

The aim of this research work is to access the perception of “GARI YA WAYE” programme on the citizens of Kaduna. This study has the following objectives to ascertain whether citizens of Kaduna State watch DITV “GARI YA WAYE” Hausa Magazine Programme.

  • To determine if “GARI YA WAYE” programme interest the citizens of Kaduna.
  • To find out whether the programme is conveniently scheduled for the citizens of Kaduna.
  • To ascertain if “GARI YA WAYE” programme has increased its perception among the residents of Kaduna.
  • To determine whether “GARI YA WAYE” programme influences the perception of residents of Kaduna.

1.6     Significance of the Study

“GARI YA WAYE” Hausa Magazine Programme has become a popular programme in Kaduna. The study therefore would provide useful insight on the perception of “GARI YA WAYE” in Kaduna. Also the researchers findings will help to expand the perception of “GARI YA WAYE” and existing knowledge especially and also serve as a guide for further investigation in the area. The study would add knowledge to mankind in general.

1.7   Research Questions

  1. Is “GARI YA WAYE” magazine popular among residents of Ungwan Sanusi?
  2. Is “GARI YA WAYE” conveniently scheduled for the residents of Ungwan Sanusi?
  3. Are there limitations to the prospects of the station among residents of Ungwan Sanusi?
  4. Are there better ways the programme can be enhanced for more acceptance?

1.8   Scope of the Study

The scope of the study is limited to Hausa Magazine Programme “GARI YA WAYE” only. Similarly, only residents of Ungwan Sanusi would be sampled in the study.

1.9   Limitation of the Study

This study covers residents of Ungwan Sanusi and their perception of “GARI YA WAYE” Hausa Magazine Programme on DITV. This study has no limitation and similarly, the scope of the study materials is limited to Ungwan Sanusi.

1.10 Definition of Terms

DITV: it refers to Desmims Independent Television “GARI YA WAYE”. It is the little of the programme.

INFLUENCE: refers to power affecting a person or things or course of event especially on that operates without direct or apparent.

1.11 Theoretical Framework

The mass communication theory which will guide the study is the “perception theory”. This theory was propounded by Berelson and Stainer in 1964. The theory states that mass communication wants audiences to pay attention to their messages learn the content of the messages and make appropriate changes in attitudes of beliefs or produce the desired  behavioural responses. The perception theory tells us that the process of interpreting messages is complex and that those goals may be difficult to achieve. It is because of the above concept that the researcher will try to examine the process of perception which is of great relevant to the study. Berelson and Stainer (1964 – 88) state that perception is the complex process by which people select, organize and interpret sensory stimulation into a meaningful and correct picture of the word. Research has identified two types of influences on our perception structural and functional influences. Structural influence on our perception came from the physical aspects of the stimulation which we are being exposed. Functional influences are psychological factors that influence perception and therefore introduced some concept which include selective retention.

 Selective Perception

This is applied to the tendency of people’s perception to be influenced by their wants, needs, attitude and other psychological factors. An individual tends to perceive and then decode communication messages in the light of our previous experiences and current dispositions. Different people can react to a message in a different ways because no messages will have an intended meaning for every one or have the same meaning for all the receivers.

Selective Exposure

It is only natural that people seek out information that caters to their own interests confirms their belief and boost their own ego while avoiding these that ate contrary to their own predisposition and attack their self image. This determines which papers they subscribe to or read at all which television stations they turn to, which programmes do they watch on those channels, and to what kind of advertisement they like most.

 Selective Attention

The eyes process information much faster the brain can interpret, the human brain has to select which information to pay attention to at any given time in other to avoid confusion. Hence, advertiser use all kinds of gimmicks to catch and retain audience attention must especially with the erection of billboards.    

 Selective Retention

This is the tendency to recall of information to be influenced by wants, needs, attitude and other psychological factors. Selective exposure, attention, perception, and retention work together in their ways not in isolation. However in basis of selective principles in perception, their most powerful strategic selective perception since it makes peoples interpret messages (including mass mediated messages) not necessarily according to the meaning intended by the same source but mainly on the basic of the personal factors highlighted earlier. Therefore the relevance of this theory is to see which consumer or individuals have exposure to a message, how they attend to it and the attention they pay before retaining in order to recall later.

The major strength of this theory is that individual have the ability to perceive attend and retain information or messages at their disposal. On the contrary, the message can reach the receiver, hit the target and still fail to accomplish its purpose because it is subject to interpretation of the receiver and therefore serves as a major weakness of the theory.

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