Tag Archives: Education

E-LEARNING IN NIGERIAN UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

PROSPECTS AND OF E-LEARNING IN NIGERIAN UNIVERSITY EDUCATION USING NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA AKURE STUDY CENTER

ABSTRACT

This study was designed to investigate the Prospects And Challenges Of E-Learning in Nigerian University Education, a case study of National Open University of Nigeria Akure Study Center. The design of the study was questionnaire, specifically Frequency count, Percentage, Mean, t-test and ANOVA look into the Prospects And Challenges Of E-Learning in Nigerian University Education with a view to find out the area of strength and weakness in Computer usage .upon identifying weakness ,the study aimed at providing recommendation for improvement. 140 students and staffs participated in the study by providing data which was sought through the use of questionnaires. The instrument required information on Computer training background competence and literacy level of the Students and Staffs. Result level shows that acquaintance level necessary for the use of e- learning facilities by students were very high and Inability to operate computer and internet devices makes e-learning boring to National Open University of Nigeria students. Although, some staff and student of NOUN don’t know how to operate computer and learning new software’s to enhance e- learning does not waste student/staff time but inequality of access to technology is the prior challenges of e-learning among the student of NOUN. Also, E-learning is alternative to the face-to- face teaching method; E-learning complements face-to-face teaching method, and increased collaboration learning and interaction. There are significant challenges and prospects of E-learning in Nigerian University education such as inappropriate maintenance, no stable internet provider to support easy and fast learning and teaching, and this problem can be alleviated since there is no any significance difference between education via electronic means and conventional means if Government can. To counter the effect of challenges, Nigeria education can be ascertain if Government make internet accessible, provide adequate personnel on maintenance and finance e- learning.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

 1.1     Background to the Study

E-learning refers to the use of ICTs i.e. Information and Communication Technology to enhance and support teaching and learning process. E-learning ranges from the way student use e- mail and accessing course work online while following a course on campus to programs offered entirely online. Advances in ICT have revolutionized higher education in many ways like increasing access to post-secondary instruction, improving the availability of educational resources, facilitating meaningful interaction among learners, outmoded educational system and as such better prepare students and the average citizen for the information age, and or accelerate national development efforts (Albirini, 2006).

The term e-learning is not a new phenomenon in promoting education in some parts of world. Presently, some institutions in Nigeria are using it to promote distance education (DE) and life long learning. E-learning according to Sale (2002), is the use of electronic technology to deliver education and training applications, monitor learner’s performance and report learner’s progress. Hedge and Hayward (2004), defined it as an innovative approach for delivering electronically mediated, well-designed, learner-centered and interactive learning environments to anyone, anyplace, anytime by utilizing the internet and digital technologies in concern with instructional design principles. It is all about learning with the use of computers. In this age, learning with the use of computer is simply online ways of acquiring knowledge through the internet or through the offline – CD-ROM; the online involves the use of Internet Explorer/Navigator. It may be in form of Audio, Visual, and or Audio/Visual. The process and applications of e-learning technology include computer-based learning, web-based learning, virtual learning, blended learning, hybrid models, internet learning, networked learning, Tele-learning, computer-assisted learning  and online classroom and digital collaboration where contents is delivered via the internet, intranet/extranet, audio and or video tapes, satellite TV and CD-ROM (Arbaugh, 2000; Achuonye, 2004; Ukoha, 2007).

In Nigerian schools, the commonest type of e-learning adopted is in form of lectures note on CD-ROM which can be played as at when the learners desires. The challenge of this method is that the numbers of students per computer in which these facilities are available are un-interactive as compared to when lectures are been received in the classroom. Some institutions adopted the use of intranet facilities; however, this is not well maintained because of incessant power problem and high cost of running generating set. Most students in Nigeria go to the cyber café but because there are people of diverse intension on the net at the same time, and the bandwidth problem, a multimedia interactive cannot be done. Despite all these and other challenges facing e-learning in Nigeria educational institution, institutions such as University of Ibadan, Obafemi Awolowo University, University of Benin, University of Abuja, University of Lagos, National Open University of Nigeria among others has the facilities for e-learning. The number seems very low (compared to other parts of the world and the usefulness of the e-learning in the economy development) because of location of most institutions, bandwidth issue and mostly the challenge of electricity. Though most of the educational institutions (private and public) have started setting up their ICT centres for internet services alone without actually taking into consideration other components of e-learning centre.

The focus of this research work is to find out the challenges and prospects of e-learning in National Open University of Nigeria ( NOUN ) , Akure study centre, therefore it is of paramount necessity to take a look into the foundation / history of National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN ) as well as her mode of Operations and her academic activities.

The National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN), was established in July, 1983, by an Act of the National Assembly as the first distance learning tertiary institution in Nigeria when it became crystal clear to the then Federal Government that the ever growing demand for education by her people cannot be met by the traditional means of face-to-face classroom instructional delivery. The institution was closed down few weeks after its establishment and the Act that established the University was suspended in 1984 by the then Federal Military Government that overthrew the civilian government. Many years after the closure, the compelling reasons that informed the earlier establishment of the university as well as the need to fill the gap created by the Federal Government clamped down on mushroom outreach study centers of many conventional universities all over the country and the need to take advantage of emerging developments in the field of ICTs which have revolutionalized the techniques and methods of instructional deliveries in the distance learning mode necessitated the reactivation of the suspended NOUN Act of 1983 in 2002. This paved the way for the resuscitation of the NOUN.

Keegan (1998) once said of Online-education as being “Characterized by the separation of teachers and learners which distinguishes it from self study and private tutoring, the use of a computer network to present or distribute some educational content, the provision of two-ways communication via a computer network so that students may benefit from communication with each other, teachers, and staff ”, linking it with the description of e-learning which Arbaugh, 2000; Archuonye, 2004 and Ukoha, 2007 said, “ e-learning implies the abilities of people to use information technology and the internet to learn improve their learning skills and strengthen their capabilities in the information society ”.

The emergence and proliferation of new information and communication technologies (ICT), had introduced an unstoppable revolution into education particularly in the areas of teaching and learning. The Internet and the web have further raised the revolutionary tempo especially through the enhancement of e-learning. For most open and distance learning providers, e-learning had added another dimension to the issue of access. While Open and Distance Learning, ODL, itself is hailed by nations as bailing them out of the problem of providing access to education to the masses, e-learning is further extending the frontiers by further removing distance from education and helping individuals who can, to access education anywhere, anytime, at their own pace and at any place. E- Learning or On-line education offers students excellent opportunities for individual communication with their study materials, study resources, and their tutors. It is the interactive exploits technology and communication systems to improve the learning experience. It has the potential to transform the way we teach and learn across the board (i.e.24 hours / 7 days) throughout the year. It can raise standards, and widen participation in lifelong learning. It is important to bear this in mind that E- learning as learning facilitated online through network technologies involves the utilization of virtual technologies in the practice of teaching, learning and assessment (Lee, Hong and Ling, 2002) and at National Open University of Nigeria, e-learning activities started with the most basic use of audio tapes and progressed to the use of CD-ROM, interactive videos and now, the university has a most standard e-learning laboratory using one of the best Learning Management Systems, LMS.

The National Open University of Nigeria, NOUN, sprang from the ashes of the defunct National Open University, which was abruptly closed down by a military government in April 1984, barely one year after its establishment. In the year 2000, after an international workshop co- hosted by the Commonwealth of Learning, COL, and the Nigerian Federal Government, the years 2001 – 2010 were declared a decade of open a distance learning in Nigeria. Thereafter, a time-line was drawn for series of activities and implementation strategies. One of such strategies was the resuscitation of the defunct Open University which now had to be re-named National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN). Electronic learning which is basically the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to enhance and support learning / teaching and research (Eteng and Ntui, 2009). It was clear in the mind of the planner’s right from the beginning that e- learning or on-line learning would play a major role in the teaching and learning delivery system of the university.

The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004. Pg 17) places emphasis on the provision and utilization of Information and Communication (ICT) when it states that “In recognition of the prominent roles of information and communication technology in advancing knowledge and skills necessary for effective functioning in the modern world, there is urgent need to integrate Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into education in Nigeria”. Educational institutions are getting more interested in improving their programme with ICT tools and applications to introduce flexibility in the teaching and learning process.

The following gives step-by-step description of the e-learning activities of the university i.e. National Open University of Nigeria.

Objective:

The main objective of the NOUN e-learning efforts is to encourage staff and students of the university to adopt an innovatory approach to educational provisions and instructional deliveries and imbibe the culture of using technologies to support such provision and deliveries.

Specific objectives:

Some of the specific objectives are:

  1. To sensitize staff and students of the university towards the use of e-learning
  2. To develop capacity in e-learning and provide leadership in this aspect of ICT utilization in Nigeria and within the West African sub-region.
  3. To raise general awareness of the academic community of e-learning
  4. To provide systemic and continuous support for staff and students in the use of e-learning
  5. To initiate a culture of innovation which will lead to experimentation in educational
  6. To include e-learning in the portfolio of teaching and learning tools at
  7. To establish and disseminate good practice in this area of teaching and learning in Nigeria and within the West African sub-region.
  8. To provide, as part of the university’s strategic plan, a sound infrastructure for the development and delivery of e-learning tools and services.

1.2     Statement of the Problems 

The call for utilization of e-learning in various educational sectors / unit on instructional delivery is to infuse and inject efficiency and effectiveness in Curriculum implementation. However, in developing countries like Nigeria, e-learning is challenged with the problem of material devices such as computer, computer laboratories, internet and email facilities, videophone systems and teleconferencing devices, fax and wireless applications, digital library, digital classrooms, multimedia systems and the problem of multimedia courseware development among others. Other studies indicates that there is dearth of professional trained and skills teachers for e- learning, lack of facilities, infrastructures and equipments (Jegede and Owolabi, 2008).

It is against this background that the present study is to be carried out to determine the extent of various challenges facing e-learning as well as to examine its prospects and benefits to the education industry if well utilized.

1.3     Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate and identify the challenges and prospects of e- learning in Nigerian university education using National Open University of Nigeria, Akure Study Center as a case study and to recommend possible solution.

1.4     Research Questions and Hypotheses 

Research Questions:

In trying to find solutions to specific problems arising from e-learning, the following research questions were asked.

  1. Are students really acquainted with the required knowledge necessary for the use of e-learning facilities?
  2. What is the attitude of students and staff of NOUN to the use of e-learning facilities towards teaching and learning?
  3. Does National Open University of Nigeria have enough e-learning facilities and equipments?
  4. To what extent is the e-learning facility being used towards the achievement of teaching-learning goals in NOUN?

Research Hypothesis:

H01:      There are no any significant challenges and prospects of E-learning in Nigerian University education.

H02: There is no significant difference between education via Electronic means and conventional means.

H03: There are no significant impacts of e-learning towards academic performance of students’ achievement in NOUN.

1.5     Delimitations of the Study

This study will focus on almost all selected departments across all faculties/schools in the National Open University of Nigeria, Akure Study Center, few of these schools are:

  1. School of arts and Social sciences;
  2. School of Agricultural sciences;
  3. School of Education;
  4. School of Earth Sciences;
  5. School of Law;
  6. School of Management Sciences; and
  7. School of Science and
  8. Theology and psychological study
  9. Research study
  10. Counseling and Business study

But the faculties and range which will not be able to cover with this research are as follow:

  1. School of medical
  2. School of applied science
  3. Space and Marine school

This is because much of practical work is required and can best be achieved with hands-on learning.

1.6     Significance of the Study

An attempt to embark on this study might provide a diagnostics basis for solving problems or challenges facing e-learning as well as knowing the prospects of e-learning in Nigerian university education. It might also help to change the altitude of students as well as teachers/lecturers towards e-learning. Also, it will find out the role of Government to the development of e-learning through the provision of e-learning equipment.

In addition, it will make the teachers/lecturers, Students and government to be aware of the challenges and prospects of e-learning in Nigerian university education.

1.7     Definitions of Terms

Prospects: Prospects is from the Latin word prospective which means “a view or outlook”. A prospect is a way of looking ahead and expecting good things, a possibility that something fabulous or great will happen. It is like potential in that it is something that might be but is not yet. There is also the potential for something bad to happen, but prospects usually look good.

Challenges: Challenges refers to a matter or situation regarded as unwelcome or harmful and needing to be dealt with and overcome.

E-Learning: E-learning refers to electronic learning. This means using a computer to deliver part, or all of a course whether it is in a school or a full distance learning course.

Education: Education refers to the process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, especially at a school or university. The act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgement and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life.

University Education: This refers to an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after secondary education. It is otherwise known as higher education, post – secondary education, tertiary education or third-level education.

Distance Education: Distance education refers to a method of studying in which lectures are broadcasted or classes are conducted by correspondence or over the internet, without the students needing to attend a school or college.

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SOCIAL COST OF EDUCATION AND QUALITY EDUCATION

IMPACT OF SOCIAL COST OF EDUCATION ON THE QUALITY OF PUBLIC SECONDARY EDUCATION IN IGABI LOCAL GOVERNMENT, KADUNA STATE

ABSTRACT

The study investigates the impact of social cost of education on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna state. The objectives of the study are to: determine the impact of school supplies cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State; assess the impact of instructional materials cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State; find out the impact of salary cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State; examine the impact of utilities cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State; and ascertain the impact of regular maintenance cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State. These objectives were transcribed into five research questions and five hypotheses respectively. Survey research design was used in the study. The target population of the study is made up of 360 participants. In all, there are 5 Ministry of Education officials, 14 principals, 341 teachers in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State. A sample size of 3 ministry of education officials, 7 principals and 186 teachers were sampled from Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, making the total of 196 respondents. The instrument titled “social cost of education and quality public secondary education questionnaire (SCEQPSEQ)” was used for data collection in the study. The validated instrument was pilot tested, the reliability co-efficient was determined using Cronbach Alpha statistic and a reliability coefficient of 0.79 was obtained. The data collected in the study was analysed using descriptive statistics; frequency counts, mean and standard deviation to answer the research questions. Kruskal-Wallis was used to test the five null hypotheses at 0.05 level of` significance. Findings of the study revealed among others that school supplies cost had no significant impact on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Instructional materials cost had significant impact on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State. More so, salary cost had significant impact on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State. Recommendations were made in the study to include that: The Kaduna state government should adhere strictly to the UNESCO benchmark, which calls for investing 26% of the annual budget and 6% of the gross domestic product in education. Kaduna state government in collaboration with stakeholders should give top priority to the finance of instructional materials that make learning more practical and accessible, especially at the secondary school level because it acts as a stepping stone for higher education.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background to the Study

Educational organisations have become throughout the world so complex that they require detailed investigations into their various dimensions. Social costs is one such important dimension. This cost may be in the form of infrastructure creation, salary of teaching staff and non-teaching employees, tuition waiver/scholarship to students and such other heads. From wherever the funds are obtained, it is one of the most important preconditions for making education available, and also augmenting the quality of education provided.

It is even more crucial now that education is widely seen as an investment activity. The cost of education therefore, refers to the cost incurred by the state government for providing education to the citizens (Kumar, 2014). However, the chance of acquiring quality education largely depends on the right funding of secondary education (Lugaz & Grauwe, 2016). Educational cost is also a measure of what a student, an institution of learning, or the public has to give up in order to educate an individual or a group of people. Cost of education may be incurred by producers (educational institutions) or consumers (students and their parents) (Babalola, 1995). In its broad usage, cost implies the resources (money, materials, and men) used up for the operation of a business enterprise (Aghenta, 1993). Cost in education represents the real resources in terms of money and sacrifices that are used up to produce an educated person.

Generally, costs in education are classified into social and private costs. Social costs represent social investment or government expenditures on education while private costs are incurred by the students and their households. Social and private costs are further divided into direct and indirect costs. Direct social cost refers to the actual direct expenditures by government and direct private cost refers to the actual direct expenditures by students or their parents in providing education. Direct social cost of education which is the focus of this study is further distinguished as recurrent social cost and capital social cost. The crucial distinction between recurrent and capital cost lies in the source of finance (Paudel, 2018).

Direct social cost is usually divided into two categories for accounting purposes: recurrent cost and capital cost (Paudel, 2018). Recurrent cost is the costs of educational inputs or services which is expended in a period of one year: it consists of personnel costs (salaries, employment benefits and supplementary benefits paid to teachers, school administrators, and other school staff) and non-personnel costs (costs of instructional materials, teaching aids, school supplies, minor repair and regular maintenance, utilities, and student welfare) (Tsang, 1995). They are financed from current income or revenue, while capital expenditures are financed by loans from international agencies as well as other sources of income (Akpotu, 2008). Direct social cost of education implies the actual financial expenditures on education by government, which includes teachers and non-teachers’ salaries and allowances, expenditures on books equipment, stationary and transport, imputed rent on educational buildings, maintenance cost and other expenditures on goods and services (Paudel, 2018).

According to Levin and McEwan (2003), personnel costs are the costs for human resources in education including those who serve full-time, part-time and voluntary. It involves the role, qualifications and time spent in the provision of education. Input time also covers the use of the time involved in education programmes. Meanwhile, input costs for facilities are expenses for building, facilities and the space used for education programmes. Costs of materials include expenses for computers, printed materials, books, stationaries and references. Cost of inputs varies according to the level of education.  The cost at higher education may be higher than at the school level.

Furthermore, students must spend on new sets of equipment – the basic requirement in their studies such as uniforms, laboratory or workshop attires, as well as special equipment according to the course and type of study. Cost of transportation at schooling level refers to the daily journey to school. Funding determines to a large extent, the quality of education. In turn, the quality of education determines the knowledge acquisition and success of the students both in the internal and external examinations. So, in effect, funding avenues affect learners’ progress. Issues related to financing of education are crucial for understanding overall educational development.

There are ways in which the government finance teachers’ salaries, target support to vulnerable groups, laboratory equipment, building of new schools, especially in arid areas and provision of teaching/ learning materials in all public schools (Githinji, 2012). Yet, in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna state, government are been criticised for not able to meet such cost, which results in high transfer/loss of qualify teachers, lack/obsolete instructional materials, dilapidated infrastructures etc. that diminishes the pool of qualified people from diverse backgrounds who will enter the professional and political ranks that make important public policy decisions. Whereas every school’s mission ought to be to educate students to become knowledgeable, socially skilled, healthy, caring, and responsible citizens.

The Kaduna state government remains an important player in providing education services, but making high-quality education accessible for all in the State requires innovative programmes and initiatives in addition to public resources and leadership. However, the government scheme for the provision of social cost of education was inefficient and therefore adversely affected the quality of teaching and learning. Thus this study explored the impact of social cost of education on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna state, Nigeria.

1.2     Statement of the Problem

It is obvious that education is largely financed by the government. However, the government finance of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna state is increasing but grossly inadequate. For instance, the recurrent expenditure allocated to overheads increased appreciably from just 6% in 2001 to 14% in 2005. Nevertheless, the level of overhead funding remains seriously inadequate. In real terms, total expenditure on secondary education in Kaduna State fell by 21.6% during this period (Abubakar & Bennell, 2007). Governmental commitment on accessible education and equal opportunity in education from both government and private sectors enhances education opportunity for those who cannot afford to pay for education. Nonetheless, the rate and ratio of the investment on education from the government is a debatable issue. In this context, it is difficult to answer the questions about the overall finance size of the government in education easily because it is too vague, in general involves nature of the government in practical.

Recently, the focus has also being shifted not only on the importance of government social cost of education but on the determinants of quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna state. Many people believe that the quality of education in public secondary schools is on the decline and, they blame the inefficient government finance of education. The inadequate funding has been criticised on the ground that it can never get the students quality education like their counterparts in private schools. In other words, no one should expect quality education in public schools if funding continue to be abysmally inadequate (Martim, 2008). It is arguable that this trend could have impacted negatively on the quality of public secondary education.

On the part of the government, the social cost of education, and especially at secondary school level, became necessary in order to maintain the quality of academic programmes, and improve access to secondary education (Orodho, 1995). Since searching relevant literatures in the study area, few studies, if any, have focused on trying to examine the impact of social cost of education on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna state and how school administrators are coping with the harsh economic realities that they find themselves rapt into.

More so, despite tuition fee waiver in public secondary schools, children from poor backgrounds have continued to be marginalized as some public schools charges are in excess. Therefore, financing education through social cost could be one of the major problems facing public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area of Kaduna State. This situation might be the root cause of shortage of qualified teachers, inadequate or lack of instructional materials, absence of relevant utilities, and lack of proper maintenance of school infrastructures in public secondary schools in Igabi Local Government Area of Kaduna State. Hence the study sought to investigate the impact of social cost of education on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna state.

1.3     Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are to:

  1. determine the impact of school supplies cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria;
  2. assess the impact of instructional materials cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria;
  3. find out the impact of salary cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria;
  4. examine the impact of utilities cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria; and
  5. ascertain the impact of regular maintenance cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria.

1.4     Research Questions

The following research questions were answered in the study:

  1. What is the impact of school supplies cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria?
  2. What impact do instructional materials cost have on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria?
  3. What impact do salary cost have on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria?
  4. What impact do utilities cost have on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria?
  5. What is the impact of regular maintenance cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria?

1.5     Research Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were formulated for the study:

H01:     There is no significant difference in the opinions of Ministry of Education Officials, Principals, and Teachers regarding the impact of school supplies cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria.

H02:     There is no significant difference in the opinions of Ministry of Education Officials, Principals, and Teachers regarding the impact of instructional materials cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria.

H03:     There is no significant difference in the opinions of Ministry of Education Officials, Principals, and Teachers regarding the impact of salary cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria.

H04:     There is no significant difference in the opinions of Ministry of Education Officials, Principals, and Teachers regarding the impact of utilities cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria.

H05:     There is no significant difference in the opinions of Ministry of Education Officials, Principals, and Teachers regarding the impact of regular maintenance cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria.

1.6     Basic Assumptions

The study is based on the assumptions that:

  1. school supplies cost incur by the government ensure the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
  2. instructional materials cost incur by the government enhance the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
  3. salary cost incur by the government boost the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
  4. utilities cost incur by the government guarantee the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
  5. regular maintenance cost incur by the government boost the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria.

1.7     Significance of the Study

Findings of this study would be beneficial to school administrators, ministry of education, NGOs, government, parents, students, and other researchers. Necessary information applicable to the impact of social cost of education on the quality of public secondary education would be revealed to the school administrators. The finding would also encourage further interest and inquiry into governmental commitment on accessible and quality education.

The outcome of the study provides useful guide to educational planners and managers as it provides information on the actual cost involved in financing secondary education. The finding also gives an insight into the pattern of educational expenditures. The finding would also be helpful to NGOs which may wish to assist in financing secondary education in terms of provision of necessities that are not included in the social cost.

The findings would help government to make choices and take varied decisions regarding social cost of education. It would help to shed light on the relationship between social cost and quality of public secondary education in terms of infrastructure creation, salary of teaching staff and non-teaching employees, tuition waiver/scholarship to students and the ongoing battle for funding. The finding would help the government to take into account the uneven distribution of resources, students, and other inputs across schools. Additionally, resource constraints are a fact of life in education, and the constraints have been particularly severe in the early part of the 21st century. Thus, the finding of this study would create an awareness to government how inadequate social cost affects the efficiency of public secondary schools.

Students in Igabi Local Government, Kaduna State will immensely benefit from this study because the resultant awareness of the value and state of social cost will bring about their improvement, which will consequently make the school environment more conducive for teaching, learning and habitation by students. The study will also add to the growth of knowledge impact of social cost of education on the quality of public secondary education.

The finding of the study will be used as basis of research in other local government areas of Kaduna state. It will provide empirical information and data base that will enable parents, researchers and other stakeholders to gain better understanding of the impact of social cost of education on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna state.

1.8     Scope of the Study

The study explore the impact of social cost of education on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna state. The study is delimited to Igabi Local Government Area. It further delimits to only public secondary schools within the Local Government Area, for good representation. The participants of the study are the Principals, Teachers and ministry of education officials. Questionnaire would be used to gather the participants’ opinions on the interplay between the variables of the study such as school supplies cost, instructional materials cost, salary cost, utilities cost, and regular maintenance cost on the quality of public secondary education in Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna state.

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EFFECT OF KIDNAPPING AND BANDITRY ON EDUCATION

EFFECT OF KIDNAPPING AND BANDITRY ON EDUCATION IN CHIKUN LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF KADUNA STATE

ABSTRACT

The study examines the “Effect of Banditry and Kidnapping on Education in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State”. Four objectives guided the study: to examine the nature of kidnapping and banditry; to Identify the causes of kidnapping and banditry; to find out the impact of kidnapping and banditry on education and to analyse the current security measures in the protection of lives and properties in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State. A survey method was used along with a four point likert scale questionnaire to facilitate the collection of data from respondents. A sample of 100 were involved and served as respondents. Data collected was presented using statistical tables with percentage values for the Bio-data and mean value to analyze the research questions formulated from the objectives. Findings shows that in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State, Inter-communal political violence, inter-personal violence, gang violence, and economical-motivated violence are the nature of kidnapping and banditry; that Political-based violence, weak security system, unemployment/poverty, and organized violent group are the causes of kidnapping and banditry; that Effective education cannot be achieved in a situation where there is insecurity; that insecurity can force students or learners out of school; lecturers or teachers will prefer to transfer their services to other schools where their safety will be secured and guaranteed and that learning materials are always destroyed during crises and the donors will be reluctant to provide further support to conflict areas are the negative impacts of kidnapping and banditry on education;  and that Equipment of security agencies, creating employment, maintain law and order, and establishment of community policing are the current security measures in the protection of life and properties. It was recommended that Government should strengthen the security personnel by equipping them with sophisticated weapons, communication gadget and logistics to enable them confront the bandits head-on.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background of the Study

Education is the light every individual needed to move to the next stage in the journey of life. Education helps to give direction, create opportunity and place you in good position in life. The only different between the bank gate man and the bank managing director is education. We all want to be in good position in life and one of the vital requirements is education. The foundation of education of students has a long way and role to play in different students’ performance in school.

However, with the increasing nature of terrorism, armed robbery, banditry, kidnapping, in Nigeria which constitute a devastating threat to security of life of students makes it challenging in achieving the purpose of literacy education for young ones.

According to section 14 (2) (b) of the Federal Republic of Nigeria’s constitution, the welfare and security of the populace must be the state’s primary goals. The security and well-being of the people are jointly stated as the only goals in this declaration (Okeke, 2022). Every requirement is present when one desires to grasp security. All people, both governmental and non-governmental, are excessively concerned about security (Akpan, 2017). The need for security becomes a vital issue of political thought and action in a world of perceived improbability and danger. It channels a broad yearning for more dependability, stability, and tangibleness in the face of the terrifying forces of unpredictability, rapid transformation, and complexity. Ironically, however, there is no consensus on what the phrase “security” means, and it does not lend itself to any prognosis. Instead, it delineates the boundaries of a hotly contested terrain (Boemcken and Schetter, 2016). “Security is regarded as a state in which citizens are free from any dangers to their lives and means of subsistence, free from bodily damage, diseases, unemployment, and human rights violations wherever they may be found inside a sovereign nation” (Ndubuisi-Okolo Anigbuogu, 2019). In order to foster sustainable human development and to advance regional, national, and international peace and stability, security might be viewed as a “public good” (Hussein, Gnisci and Wanjiru, 2017).

According to the United Nations Development Programme (2015), security is defined as protection from covert and harmful interruptions of daily operations at homes, workplaces, communities, etc. The realism school views security in terms of warfare, recommending various military measures to counteract security concerns (Akpan, 2017). According to the “human security” perspective, threats and challenges to security go beyond law and order and national defence to include all political, economic, and social concerns that provide a life free from danger. The state has lost importance in favour of individual security. However, these two things are not incompatible (Hussein, Gnisci and Wanjiru, 2017). The military’s emphasis on security changed after the Cold War from several angles. There have been many viewpoints on security, especially at the personal level (Olurode, 2016; Bawa, 2016).

The human security approach has also made it clear that any effort to address security-related issues must be based on consultation and collaboration with various sets of actors, many of whom frequently have conflicting interests, such as civilians and soldiers, government officials and non-governmental organisations, local, national, and international actors. Despite this consensus, it has been challenging for international actors to agree on a single authoritative definition of security that enables the international community to effectively address a variety of challenges and threats, such as violent conflict, crime, emancipation, economic hardship, and environmental degradation (Hussein, Gnisci and Wanjiru, 2017).

According to Oyeyemi (2019). Nigeria’s insecurity problem may resemble that of the early 1980s economic crisis brought on by the decline in commodity prices. Price hikes from OPEC, privatisation, economic emancipation, deregulation, currency depreciation, the Cold War, politics, and the Structural Adjustment Program (SAP). The rise of Boko-Haram in the states of Borno and Yobe. The gang then became a menace to Nigeria and other nearby countries because of its criminality and terrorist actions; the height of this is insurgency, banditry, and kidnapping.

Hence, banditry and kidnapping is a threat to the educational, economic, political and social security of Nigeria. It is against the background that the study seeks to examine effect of kidnapping and banditry on education in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State.

1.2     Statement of the Problem

Insecurity is present in our species from ancient past; there is evidence in order to satisfy such a single need as hunger. In Nigeria for example, banditry and kidnapping has spread all over the country’s six geo -political zones. According to research conducted by Iyorwuese (2016), Obi, etal (2018) and Usman, etal (2020) banditry, kidnapping and farmers’-herdsmen conflict have continued to affect socio-economic activities and food security necessary for sustainability and national integration and the high propensity of damages is alarming in states like Kaduna, Plateau, Kogi, Niger, Nasarawa, Benue and Abuja, Federal Capital Territory.

The multiplier implication of banditry and kidnapping is that, it has resulted in the retarded growth and development of education in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State. Banditry and kidnapping is an ill wind which blows no one any good. Nigerian society has now been characterized and manifested in kidnapping that has become wide spread, promoting a climate of fear, impunity and insecurity in the country. Furthermore, the political unrest has worsened the internal security situation in Nigeria and also imbibed the spirit of fear in the heart of Nigerians as it has witnessed incessant cases of farmers-herdsmen attack in many states across the country. These attacks are increasingly becoming wide spread and promoting a climate of fear, impunity and insecurity in the country thus affecting education, food security and socio-economic development.

Peace makes all things possible and without it life will be meaningless. Institutions of higher learning in Nigeria and globally have been faced with many challenges in the course of their duties. The most serious challenge facing them is insecurity which seems not to be ending in the near future in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State due to the emergence of banditry and kidnapping of students for ransom. Lack of peace brings general destruction, profound insecurity, intimidation and fear which can lead to closure of schools thereby stopping educational activities for as long as a complete session. Nigerian Institutions that have faced insecurity have experienced many setbacks in terms of academic growth and infrastructural destruction.

The four major forms of insecurity in Nigeria are cultism, political thuggery, herders and farmers conflict and kidnapping and Banditry. Nevertheless, kidnapping and Banditry as it affects Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State is the main focus of this research and its impacts on education in the area. Initially, those who kidnap people in Nigeria for the sake of obtaining ransom targeted the elite class and their relatives that are dear to them, e.g. the kidnapping of the mother of the former Nigerian Football Federation President, Alhaji Sani Lulu, Hajiya Laraba Abdullahi, who was kidnapped from her palatial home in Idah, Kogi State, at 6:45pm in July, 2019 and taken to an unknown destination. However, the practice of kidnapping has taken another dimension because kidnappers do not only target high profile people but middle class, civil servants, and travelers from other states among others. A case in point; according to Kaduna State Police Command, Gunmen in Nigeria have kidnapped at least 140 school children in the north- west of the country, between July to December, 2021. Eight people were also abducted from the National Tuberculosis and Leprosy Centre in Zaria. Earlier, two nurses and a 12-month-old child were among those seized. There has been a recent spate of abductions from schools and universities for ransom, (Usman, Obi and Okeme, 2020)

Ibrahim, (2021), reports that there were mass kidnapping from a school near Kaduna city, about 80km (50 miles) south-west of Zaria. Furthermore, the kidnapping of the Kagara school students, a commercial bus, NSTA, belonging to Niger state government was attacked by bandits at Kundu where more than 20 passengers on board were abducted on their way back to Minna while returning from Rijau, in Rijau local government area of the state, (Ibrahim, 2021). In another development, the Chief of Staff to Governor Abubakar Sani Bello of Niger state, Mallam Ibrahim Balarabe on Sunday narrowly escaped being abducted by armed bandits while returning from his hometown in Kagara, Rafi local Government Area of the State. This upsurge is worrisome as so many victims have been forcefully picked and whisked away to unknown places only for ransom to be placed on them and hard-earned monies are extorted from their families. It is against this that the study seeks to examine the impact of kidnapping and banditry on education in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State.

1.3     Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to examine the impact of kidnapping and banditry on education in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State. Other specific objectives are to:

  1. Examine the nature of kidnapping and banditry in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State
  2. Identify the causes of kidnapping and banditry in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State
  3. Find out the impact of kidnapping and banditry on education in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State
  4. Analyse the current security measures in the protection of lives and properties in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State.

1.4     Research Questions

The following are the research questions formulated from the objectives of the study:

  1. What is the nature of kidnapping and banditry in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State?
  2. What are the causes of kidnapping and banditry in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State?
  3. What are the impacts of kidnapping and banditry on education in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State?
  4. What is the current security measures in the protection of life and properties in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State?

1.5     Significance of the Study

The presence of insecurity in any environment constitutes threat to lives and properties, hinders educational and business activities, and discourages local and foreign investors, all of which stifles and retards development of a country. So embarking on a study of this nature is to find out the impact of kidnapping and banditry on educational development, the perception of people on security/insecurity in their area, and the solution to the problem of insecurity affecting the society.

  1. This study is therefore significant in the sense that it provides information for academic purposes and also compliments other previous studies on the same subject and brings about the magnitude of influence; insecurity has on education in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State and Nigeria as a country.
  2. It will also help to improve the insecurity problem affecting development, and the study would provide them with information on ground which can help redevelop better security strategies and policies.
  3. This research work establishes the relationship between insecurity and development.
  4. In addition, the information that comes from this study, will provide useful information for policy formulators in Nigeria concerning the issue of insecurity,
  5. Although there has been many studies carried out on the nature of insecurity in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State, however this study will point out some of the loop holes affecting the success of security.

1.6     Scope of the Study

The scope of this study is on the impact of kidnapping and banditry on education in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State. The findings of the study shall be based on the responses gotten from the residents and limited to the respondents in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State.

1.7     Definition of Terms

A brief explanatory remark on the key terms will be pertinent to aid a better understanding of the topic under study. The terms include the following: impact, insecurity, banditry, kidnapping and education.

Banditry: This term is applied to outlaws who alone or in groups commit armed crimes; closely related forms of deviance. The crimes of bandits, however, are restricted to robbery, kidnapping, taking of hostages, and racketeering. Primary characteristics of banditry are the use of force or violence and the profit motive. Secondarily, bandits tend to engage in a wide variety of undertakings rather than one type, to vary their methods of operation considerably, to conduct their activities over a wide geographical area, and to be professional criminals, although beginners may also be classified as bandits

Impact: effect or influence

Insecurity: is a possible danger that might exploit a vulnerability to breach security and therefore cause possible harm.

Kidnapping: Kidnapping is the taking away of a person by force, threat or deceit, with intent to cause him to be detained against his will. It may be done for ransom or for political purposes (http://www. encyclopedia. com/topic/kidnapping. aspx). Also it can be seen as; The abduction of another person with an intent to hold him for ransom or reward; or use him as a shield or hostage; or accomplish or aid the commission of any felony or flight there from or inflict physical injury upon him, or to violate him sexually (http://definitions. uslegal. com/k/kidnapping/).

Education: The process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, especially at a school or university.

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PATRIARCHAL CULTURE AND GIRL-CHILD EDUCATION

PATRIARCHAL CULTURE AND ITS IMPACT ON GIRL-CHILD EDUCATION

ABSTRACT

The study examined Patriarchal Culture and Its Impact on Girl-Child Education in Nasarawa Eggon Local Government Area of Nasarawa State. Objectively, four research questions were formulated. The survey design was used in the study. The sample size was 100. 100 questionaires were administered to the respondents, but 94 questionaires were found valid. The data gathered were analysed using simple percentage and mean. The findings revealed that: Economic development, education for the next generation, better reproductive health, low rates of child mortality and malnutrition and improved family life are the benefits of girl-child education; Low parental influence, marriage material, family influence, poverty and cultural practices are the factors that prevent girl-child education; Social isolation, poor health, low self-esteem, early marriage, and harmful psychosocial impact are the consequences or effects of patriarchal culture on girl-child education; and Training of more female teachers, nurses, and doctors in receiving government attention through scholarship award and remedial courses; a proposal for female Arabic centre in the State which will integrate Islamic education with the western type; an edict preventing the withdrawal of girl-child from school should be in place; a system of offering assistance to the less privileged female children in form of provision of uniforms, books, essential material, etc; and performing female children should be identified, recognized and rewarded in Nasarawa Eggon L.G.A. Based on the findings, conclusion was drawn and recommendations given that Gender balanced curriculum and education policies should be established to consider the interest of the girl-child so that she is motivated to learn and also teacher‘s welfare should be considered.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background of the Study

In Nigeria women are considered as men’s properties or pleasure object. They are also considered as a [machine] means for producing children. These situations have resulted in unfair treatment of women especially with regards to education of the female child in the traditional Nigeria society. There exists the belief that women are second class citizen Ejere [2006] further asserts that gender inequality in Nigeria is promoted by religious and communal customs. Young girls particularly in northern Nigeria are denied the benefit of education. This has severe consequences for society at large. Obinaju [2014] sees education as inalienable right of all irrespective of the person’s circumstances.

Education in its general sense is a form of learning which the knowledge, skills, values benefits and habits a group of people are transferred from one generation to the next through storytelling, discussion, teaching, training or research. Education has been described as the most important aspect of human development, a key to successful living, especially girl-child education [micheal,2011].

Girl-child education, is a catch all terms for a complex set of issues and debates surrounding [primary education, secondary, tertiary and education in in particular] for education implies making her a day’s functional member of the society. Statistics show that many girls are not enrolled in school. The global figure for out of school children is estimated 121 million, 65 million are girls with over 80 percent of these girls in sub-Sahara Africa including Nigeria [UNICEF,2007]. The concern of this paper is that despise the campaign by the federal government united children education fund [UNICEF] and stake holders in education to improve girls-child education is skill high. Therefore, in the light of the above the study seeks to investigate “Patriarchal Culture and Its Impact on Girl-Child Education in Nasarawa Eggon Local Government Area of Nasarawa State.”

1.2     Statement of the problem

Most Africa countries are patriarchal in structure that is based on inequality and injustice. Patriarchal attitudes lead to gender stereotyping. It pervades all areas of life in Nigeria, it is a well-known fact that many parent in Africa given preferential treatment on the boy-child, especially in matters concerning education. Women are given fewer education opportunities than men as reflected in the lower literacy rates for adult female population compared to men. The social norm, which supported these gender relations were culturally transmitted from one generation to another through the process of socialization. As female children move through childhood into adolescence, they are exposed to many factors, which influence their attitudes and behaviors regarding gender roles, these attitudes are generally learning first in the home and are then reinforced by the child’s peers influence, quest for money and material things, unfriendly situation of school, social media influence, violence against girl-child, low level understanding of sex education, and preference for male child education. However, the strongest influence on gender role development seems to occur within the family setting, with parent passing on, both overtly and covertly, to their children their own beliefs about gender. In view of the aforementioned problems, the study seeks to investigate “Patriarchal Culture and Its Impact on Girl-Child Education in Nasarawa Eggon Local Government Area of Nasarawa State.”

1.3     Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to critically examine patriarchal culture and its impact on girl-child education in Nasarawa Eggon L.G.A. Other specific objectives are to:

  1. Examine the benefits of girl-child education in Nasarawa Eggon L.G.A.
  2. Examine factors that prevent girl-child education in Nasarawa Eggon L.G.A.
  3. Assess the consequences or effects of patriarchal culture on girl-child education in Nasarawa Eggon L.G.A.
  4. Suggest strategies in enhancing girl-child education in Nasarawa Eggon L.G.A.

1.4     Research Questions

The following questions were set to guide the study;

  1. What are the benefits of girl-child education in Nasarawa Eggon L.G.A?
  2. What are the factors that prevent girl-child education in Nasarawa Eggon L.G.A?
  3. What are the consequences or effects of patriarchal culture on girl-child education in Nasarawa Eggon L.G.A?
  4. What are the strategies for enhancing girl-child education?

1.5     Significance of the Study

This study is expected to be significant to several stakeholders, such as parents, teachers, students/researchers, and the government.

To the Parents:

The findings of this research could enable parents to be more enlightened on their responsibilities towards girl-child education.

The findings would also enable parents to have a rethink of their negative thought about girl-child education for positive.

To the Teachers:

The findings of this study may enable them to appreciate their roles as teachers in causing female students be retained in schools to finish their studies.

To the Students/Researchers:

They may use the findings of this study as appoint of reference (by referring to them) in their studies, as well as finding the gaps in the current study to fill them in their future studies.

To the Government:

The findings of this study will enable them put in more effort to ensure that the policy on girl child education are implemented by the parents and the schools.

1.6     Limitation of the Study

This research was carried out in Nasarawa Eggon Local Government Area of Nasarawa State. The study centred on the parents, teachers, government, societies and girl child. Research has to observe the overall mention area in order to establish patriarchal culture and its impact on girl-child education. Conversely, due to time and financial constrains the study is limited to Nasarawa Eggon Local Government Area of Nasarawa State.

1.7     Definition of Terms

Culture: this refers to the ideas, customs and social behavior of a particular people or society.

Education: is the process of facilitating learning, knowledge, skills, values, beliefs and habit of a group of people.

Gender: refers to the socially constructed roles of women and men, which “sex” refers to biological and physical characteristic which define humans as female or male.

Girl-child: is a female human from birth through childhood and adolescence to attainment of education when she becomes a woman.

Patriarchal: is a social system in which males hold primary power, predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property etc.

 

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RURAL WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATION

A STUDY OF RURAL WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATION FOR DEVELOPMENT IN KADUNA STATE OF NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the study was to investigate the causes, effects and possible solutions to the low participation of rural women in education using Kaduna State as its focus. This was prompted by the increase in the illiteracy level of the rural women and its implication for national development. The specific objectives of the study include: An investigation into the extent of rural women participation in planning their education, cultural/community restrictions and other factors that have contributed to the low participation of rural women in education. Also investigated are the influence of low participation of the rural women on national development and the strategies for improving their participation in education. The study generally aimed at improving rural women participation in education through participatory planning that can emerge with a relevant curriculum for women education. Two thousand and sixty nine (2069) respondents made up of 1,600 rural women and 469 literacy facilitators from the 19 rural local governments of Kaduna State were randomly selected for the study. The questionnaire was used in gathering data for the study. The analysis of data was on the causes and effects of low participation in education on national development and the strategies for improving participation in education. These were statistically tested using the means, standard deviations and the t-test for significance in the differences in the mean ratings of respondents as presented in the five hypotheses.   The  results  largely  showed  non-significant  differences. Consequently, the null hypotheses were accepted. The specific findings include: rural women were not involved in planning literacy programs meant for them. Cultural restrictions and other factors such as poverty, the non- chalant attitude of women towards education, inadequate funding, the frequent change in government and frequent revision of policies on education have also contributed to the low participation of women in education. It was discovered that the low participation of women in education has limited their contribution to national development. This is made manifest in their inadequate development of skills needed for development, limited participation in the process of governance, and inability to take up some job opportunities. Recognizing the implication of this for educational planning, a careful strategy that aims at meeting the needs of the rural women was identified. The study therefore proposed a participatory planned education for rural women using the principle of Participatory Rural Appraisal.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background of the Study

Rural women play important role in improving general aspects of rural life. However, in most developing countries, women (and even more so, rural women) are still an under-privileged group with an inferior social status (Okojie, 1983; National Population Commission, 1999). Within the rural sector, Okojie (1983), sees the largest group of the poor as comprising the millions of women (including girls) who by their work in the fields produce a large part of the food consumed in the country, yet are disadvantaged in many areas. A closer examination of the situation of rural women through this study will seek to reveal the low participation of rural women in education and the disadvantages of females in most rural sectors. Nevertheless, rural women’s participation in the socio-economic development of their country in recent years has become a topic of major concern hence, the need for it to be treated as a goal in its own right (International Labour Organization,1990; Olorude, 1995).

Although women’s participation in the socio-economic development of the country is receiving attention throughout the world, majority of them still live in rural areas, un-educated, living in abject poverty and deprivation (National Population Commission, 1999). This demands that their continued illiteracy has to be looked into and ways of bringing them out have to be devised.  If  these women produce a large part of our food, they indeed need to be educated to enable them know more about modern equipment that can help them carry out their farming and other important activities within the rural areas.

This becomes important as it has been found that education can enhance productivity and the ability of rural women so as to contribute to the national economy (Nwabueze, 1995). This researcher is of the view that rural women would be in a better position to use technologically developed equipment that may enhance their productivity if educated. This is because education’s concern is being modernized towards integration with the national economy (Rahman,1981).

Akangbou (1983) maintains that education is no longer an isolated industry from the national economy. Every system of education is supposed to be geared towards the development of its national economy and every segment of the society, including rural women should be equipped with education and training to enable it contribute to the national economy. Kaduna State of Nigeria is desirous to develop the ability of every member of the society (including rural women) to enhance their productivity and contribution to the development of the nation.

The Nigerian government having realised the benefit of education to its citizens emphasized the “equalization of opportunities” as one of the goals of the national policy on education  (National Policy on Education, 2004). This means that there should be availability of an appropriate education for all citizens. It has however been discovered that a large segment of the Nigerian society (3,992,744 which represents about 44%) are still illiterates (National Population Commission,1999). This may be due to ignorance on the benefits of education, non-availability of an appropriate education, or through lack of opportunity to be educated (Okojie,1983; Olaide,1990 Nwabueze,1995). The case of the rural women is even more glaring as statistics shows that out of the 22,949,499 rural women in Nigeria, about 14,67,722 do not participate in any form of education. This means that it is only about 38.7% of rural women that are educated (National Population Comission,1999).

The goal of “education for all” has been pursued vigorously by the government through the introduction of different programmes such as the Universal Primary Education in 1976 and the Universal Basic Education in 1999. The introduction of the National Mass Literacy campaign in 1982 and the different adult education programmes are examples of Federal government’s efforts to achieve “education for all” as a deliberate national policy (Nwabueze,1995). Other programmes such as the Better Life for Rural Women by Mariam Babangida in 1986 and the Family Support Programme by Mariam Abacha in 1994, were introduced at various times to enable development hitherto concentrated in the urban areas to filter down to the rural women. However, the level of participation of rural women in such programmes in Kaduna State was not encouraging. The Kaduna State Agency for Mass Literacy (2003) statistics shows that out of the about 1,360,224 rural women in the 19 designated rural local governments used for this study, about 60% do not participate in any form of literacy programme. The few women who enroll do not complete the programme for one reason or the other. There is a need to properly investigate the factors responsible for this.

Similarly, Nwabueze (1995) states that various women groups such as the National Council of Women Societies (NCWS), the Federation of Muslim Women Association of Nigeria (FOMWAN) and Women In Nigeria (WIN) have tried to affect positively, the lives of women over the years. These groups have used different methods to educate the women. Though their ideologies and attitudes may differ, one thing that binds them together is their determination to create better awareness among women in order to improve their status and effectiveness in nation development. These measures according to Ijere (1996) and Nagee (1997) greatly enhanced the awareness of women generally but did not filter down to the rural women (Okojie, 1983).

This study starts with the basic assumptions that, “Education for all” philosophy promised in our system of education has not properly benefited the rural women and it is doubtful whether the current Nigerian system of education meets the needs of the rural women (Ijere, 1992; Okojie, 1983; Agu, 1983; Olurode, 1995). The changes that education is meant to bring, such as economic efficiency, social and political achievements are not seen on the women. A lot of them still suffer one form of oppression or the other. They suffer from poverty and are in most cases un-rewarded for their labour.

The study would establish whether the rural women would be motivated to take to education if the planners had, through interaction with the women, discovered their views, opinions, why they do certain things and why they do not do certain things, time most appropriate for their education, and under what situation, etcetera (Bown & Okedara, 1981).

It is doubtful whether the educational planners took the psychology of the rural women into consideration before planning literacy programmes for them. This is because, the only way to get access to the psychology of the rural dwellers, according to Carey (1997) is to involve them in planning programmes meant for them. However, records of rural women’s participation in educational planning are hard to come by (Enyi,1995). Consequently, rural women in Kaduna State are still not responding to modern education as anticipated (Kaduna State Agency for Mass Literacy,2003). They see education programmes as something being forced down on them. This is evidenced in the record of their low participation in literacy programmes. For instance, out of the 160,960 females who enrolled for basic literacy programmes between 1990 to 2005, only 45,228 completed the programme for certification (Appendix B1). This calls for a study in Kaduna State to investigate the position of Caldwell and Caldwell (1987) who have argued that, though institutional and legal barriers to women’s access to education have been substantially reduced the world over, deep-rooted cultural beliefs and social habits that sustain gender inequality have a prolonged effect.

Some previous studies such as the studies of Idachaba (1980) Ijere (1996), The World Bank (1996) and Connel (1997) have been directed towards participation of rural dwellers in education programmes. However, none of these studies actually emphasized women’s participation in educational planning. For instance, the study of Idachaba (1980), was directed towards the participation of rural dwellers in agricultural education. This study dealt mainly with extension education (in agriculture) without emphasizing the participation of rural women in literacy education planning. Similarly, Ijere (1996) actually emphasized rural women’s participation in community development programmes and not education per se. Besides, the study of Connel, (1997) dealt with participation of rural dwellers in development programmes but without specific reference to women and their education. The study of IAWA (1997) simply concentrated on the participation of rural dwellers in development programmes without specific reference to women participation, which forms the central theme of this study. The present study therefore, hopes to ascertain why there is low participation of rural women in literacy education; the extent of involvement of the women in planning their literacy programmes, other factors affecting participation and the strategies that could be used to improve women participation in education in Kaduna State.

1.2     Statement of the Problem

 The Federal Government of Nigeria recognises the role of education in nation building. To this end, the National Policy on Education (2004) maintains that, equalization of educational opportunities for all citizens is a sure way of realizing national growth and development through education.

It has been established that, a larger percentage of Nigerians (45,061,106) are rural dwellers (Appendix C1). This figure is about 60% of the total Population of Nigeria, which are 71,556,875 (National Population Commission, 1999). Government’s efforts to harness the activities of these rural dwellers in order to attain development are being intensified. The National Population Commission (1999) maintains that a larger part of the rural area (22,949,499) is dominated by rural women. This figure represents more than 50% of rural dwellers in Nigeria. The National Population Commission (1999) puts the figure of illiterate rural women at about 14,67,722million (62%).

Having realized the importance of education to citizens, government introduced the National Literacy campaign in 1982 and other adult literacy programs (Okojie 1983; Nwabueze, 1995; and Olaide,1990). Unfortunately, statistics on the Literacy Programmes reveal that out of the 1,360,224 rural women from the 19 rural local governments used for this study, about 60% do not participate in any kind of education (Kaduna State Agency for Mass Education,2003). This illiteracy rate is high compared to that of the men, which is 36%. The National Population Commission puts the total population of men in Kaduna state as at the 1991 census at 1,613,115 while their literate population was 1,046,418 (64%). This low participation of the rural women in education is raising very serious concern as the changes that education is meant to bring, such as economic efficiency and cultural changes have not been seen in the women. Thus, education has not properly benefited the rural women and it is doubtful whether this system of education meets the needs of the rural women.

It would be established through this study whether other contributive factors such as restrictions imposed both by the communities and the society as a whole at the rural level have accounted for this low participation of the rural women in education. Boyle’s study (1992) in Pakistan shows that when rural women were allowed to participate in planning programmes that concerns them, they participated more in such programmes. To what extent therefore do rural women participate in planning their education? This study would attempt to establish the causes, effects and possible solutions to the low participation of rural women in education in Kaduna state.

1.3     Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to examine why there is low participation of rural women in literacy education in Kaduna State of Nigeria. The specific objectives the study would want to achieve are as follows:

  1. To investigate the extent of involvement of rural women in the planning of their education.
  2. To identify community restrictions that contributes to the low participation of the rural women in adult literacy
  3. To investigate   the   other   factors   responsible   for   the   low participation of the rural women in education
  4. To assess the effect of the low participation in literacy education on national development.
  5. To examine and suggest strategies for encouraging rural women’s participation in literacy education.

1.4     Research Questions

The study will be guided by the following research questions:

  1. To what extent are the rural women involved in the planning of their education?
  2. What community   restrictions   have   contributed   to   the   low participation of the rural women in literacy education?
  3. What other factors are responsible for the low participation of the rural women in education?
  4. What are the effects of the low participation in literacy education by rural women on national development?
  5. What strategies can be employed to encourage rural women’s participation in literacy education?

1.5     Hypotheses

The following hypotheses will be tested in the course of the investigation:

  1. There is no significant difference between the rural women in Kaduna North and South in the mean ratings of their responses regarding the extent of their involvement in the planning of their
  2. There is no significant difference between the rural women in Kaduna North and South in the mean ratings of their responses with respect to the community restrictions that have contributed to their low level of participation in literacy education.
  3. There is no significant difference between the rural women in Kaduna North and South in the mean ratings of their responses on the other factors responsible for their low participation in literacy education
  4. There is no significant difference between the rural women in Kaduna North and South in the mean ratings of their responses regarding the effects of their low participation in education on national development
  5. There is no significant difference between programme facilitators and rural women in Kaduna Sate in the mean ratings of their responses with respect to the strategies for encouraging rural women’s participation in literacy education.

1.6     Theoretical Framework

It is important to identify a well-articulated and relevant theory that will under gird the study. The principle on participation upon which this study is based is the collaborative decision making (community based methods) of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and SARAR (self-esteem, associative strengths, resourcefulness, action planning and responsibility) by the World Bank (1996). SARAR is geared towards the training of local trainers/facilitators, builds on local knowledge and strengthens local capacity to assess, prioritize, plan, create, organise and evaluate (World Bank, 1996). The principle of SARAR is related to this study in that this study intends to use the local knowledge of the rural women to strengthen their capacity to enable them participate in planning programs that concern them.

The Concept of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): Participatory Rural Appraisal is a label given to a growing family of participatory approaches and methods that emphasize local knowledge and enable local people to do their own appraisal, analysis, and planning (Adnan,1992). Participatory Rural Appraisal uses group animation and exercises to facilitate information sharing, analysis, and action among stakeholders (USAID, 1998). Although originally developed for use in rural areas, Participatory Rural Appraisal has been employed successfully in a variety of settings. As professionals have become more aware of errors, myths, and the misfit between the reality they construct and the reality others experienced, some have sought and developed new approaches and methods in their work known as participatory approaches (Pretty, 1994). Participatory Rural Appraisal has three foundations or pillars (IAWA, 1997). These pillars are:

  1. The behaviour and attitudes of outsiders who facilitate, not dominate community development programme planning.
  2. The methods which shift the normal belief from closed to open, from individual to group, from verbal to visual and from measuring to comparing and;
  3. Partnership and sharing of information experience and training between insiders and outsiders, and between

The use of Participatory Rural Appraisal to the present study is that, it will enable development practitioners, government officials (educational planners), and local people to work together on context-appropriate programmes. Its essence is to enable local people to share, enhance and analyse their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan, act, monitor and evaluate their own work. It has been found to work in many fields; and the desire is to see how applicable it could be in bringing rural women into participation in planning their education.

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA): The Rapid Rural Appraisal forms a large part of the participatory rural appraisal approach. This emerged in the late 1970s when more discoveries were made of the fact that rural dwellers (including women were not completely ignorant). They knew about native laws, guidelines and principles that guided their communities before the advent of modern education. Rapid Rural Appraisal has three main origins. These are:

  1. Dissatisfaction with the biases, especially the anti-poverty biases of rural development tourism, the phenomenon of the brief rural visits by the urban-based professionals. This hides the worst poverty and deprivation because the outsiders were always diplomatic (not wishing to cause offence by asking to meet poor people (including rural women) or see their conditions.
  2. Disillusion with the normal process of questionnaire, survey and their results. These were inaccurate and The reports were boring, misleading and difficult to use.
  3. More cost-effective methods of learning was This was helped by professionals recognising that rural people were themselves knowledgeable on many subjects which touch their lives. What became known as indigenous technique (IIK) was then increasingly seen to have richness and value for practical purpose. It contributed the following to Participatory Rural Appraisal: A reversal of learning, learning rapidly and progressively, optimising trade off, triangulation, and seeking diversity.

Through this principle, the planner would discover the indigenous knowledge, richness and value that would improve participation of rural women, thereby reducing the level of illiteracy (Pretty, 1994). By the middle of 1990s, activities of Participatory Rural Appraisal were practiced in not less than 100 countries and there were over 30, mainly national PRA related networks (The World Bank,1996). Many countries have held national PRA conferences and its applications had become numerous in all fields of learning and development. Non -governmental Organisations, Government, Banks, Training Institutes and universities have used PRA successfully (IAWA, 1997).

The study is related to these principles, in that it would make it easier for educational planners who are committed to emerge with a suitable education system for the rural women, to collaborate with a broad range of these women, and other stakeholders such as local leaders, husbands, communities, change- agents/facilitators, in the selection, design and implementation of an education plan for rural development.

1.7     Significance of the Study

The findings of this study would benefit the planners and facilitators of women education. The government, policy makers, community leaders, the rural women and the society will also benefit. The benefits to the planners include the increase in knowledge of the way of life of the women (their psychology) through interaction with the rural women, which would bring about an appropriate curriculum for rural women education. This would also improve the planner’s strategy in planning rural education.

The skills of the facilitators in this field, especially teachers and instructors should improve if the strategies discussed in the study (The PRA and SARAR) are properly adopted. The government should also benefit in that, it would be brought nearer to the community making it easier for the interpretation and implementation of policies to the rural women. The government through the discoveries of this research would be able to modify and supplement the existing mode of life by supplying programmes, which would require to be incorporated to improve the culture of the rural women for their living. When the government is brought nearer to the community it may even convince the community to release their resources to support education programmes.

Rural women would benefit by having an improved socialization process, sharing of norms among unlike groups, they would be more aware of the benefit of education and it would make it easier for them to communicate their needs to the government. The women would even perform their domestic roles better. Through this research, the need for equity would be fulfilled, while the socio -economic gaps in the society would be covered because rural women would now perform their roles better than what it is now, thereby leading to an improved national development. Above all, women would have the opportunity to be involved in the planning process, which would emerge with an appropriate curriculum for their education.

The objectives of this study therefore, extends beyond participation of the women in education planning. It encompasses improved education, which would eventually lead to improved and increased productivity, and then higher incomes for the target groups, as well as minimum acceptable levels of foods, shelter and health. The study would bring to focus the relevance of rural women’s education, the relevance of participation and its effect on national development.

1.8     Delimitation of the Study

The study is restricted to rural women’s participation in literacy education in Kaduna State with specific reference to rural women in Kaduna North and South. The literacy programmes are: basic Literacy, post-Literacy, functional education, Girl-Child education and Quaranic education. The choice of Kaduna State is due to the fact that it is one of the educationally less developed states of the federation striving to improve literacy rate among the citizens. The rural women and their programme facilitators constitute the target population. The rural women in the State are in the good position to explain their level of participation in education. The literacy facilitators are also useful because they handle the literacy programmes and have good perspectives of the problems encountered by the rural women. The Questionnaire was administered on the sample of the population, consisting of rural women and programme facilitators in all the 19 rural local government areas of the State. Findings will be generalised to cover the whole of Kaduna State.

1.8     Operational Definition of Terms

The following terms are operationally defined for the purpose of this study:-

Rural Women: This refers to the women mostly found in the villages. They work mostly in fields, gardens and farms to produce a large part of the food consumed in villages and urban areas. Rural women for the purpose of this study are women found in small homestead, villages and hamlets. The educated women that lives in rural areas but carry out their activities in urban areas do not form part of this study.

Participating in Educational Planning:. This is the process of getting rural women involved in making decisions concerning their education.

Participation in Education:. This is the act of getting rural women to enroll in education programmes.

Development:. It is an act of bringing about a change in the structure of the society in all dimensions in order to have a society with equality and equity for all. Development should emphasize the human aspect just as it does to the provision of tangible things.

Education:. This is the inculcation of knowledge to an individual or a group of people. Education here covers all forms of education such as formal, informal and non-formal education. The curriculum should have specific objectives relating to rural areas. This means different curriculum for rural women still within school age, and older women whose curriculum should be geared towards occupation, job training, community living and development.

Education for Rural Development:. This has to do with the inculcation of knowledge that would bring about the desired skill, which would bring positive change to the society. It is the education that seeks to promote knowledge and development of skills that would contribute to nation building.

Kaduna North and South:. This is a classification of women in Kaduna state according to their geographical and cultural differences. Kaduna state is found in the north central part of Nigeria. Differences in religious, social characteristics, and community backgrounds are put into consideration in discussing the rural women in this study.

 

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Comparison of JSS Academic Performance

Comparison of Junior Secondary School Academic Performance in internal and External Examination in Social Studies in Warri South Local Government Area of Delta State

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background of the Study

The parameter or yardstick in the measurement or determine into of one’s achievement, success or failure on an assigned duty, specific task, education and or, in a business Endeavour is by the evaluation of his/her performance in their various subjects of study in Nigeria is a thing of long time origin.  And the appraisal of student’s performance in social studies is not an exemption.  The importance of social studies as a subject taught in secondary school in Nigeria cannot be over-emphasized.  It is in this vain that many researchers have studied our school system to identify the various means, channel and or, procedure of impeaching knowledge to our students especially through social studies.

This performance of students is a far cry based on the expected success of institutions of these kinds or nature.  A lot of reasons has been adduced for this inspite of the preparedness of teachers of those schools to deliver.  Some of the students absent themselves from schools for a long time.  This affects their performance because they have lost touch of the essence of regular practice and continuity in social studies.

Secondly, the students do not avail themselves with the use of books which supposed to enhance their performance this is further caused by poor reading habit of some of them and loads of domestic work which their parents engaged them in.

Learning has been so much associated with the school that some people almost think that learning goes on only in schools. This view of learning has been greatly reinforced by such reference to schools as institutions of learning and to Universities, Polytechnics and College of Education as institutions of higher learning (Okoye, 1987). There is no doubting the fact that much learning goes on in school. The school is particularly and specifically arranged so as to facilitate effective learning. Unfortunately the poor condition of our schools, particularly the secondary schools today in the nation raises a lot of anxiety. A cursory look at these schools in spite of government efforts reveals schools dominated by dilapidated buildings, school void of good furniture and equipment, schools where instructional materials are either not provided or are inadequate; school that are under-staffed; schools, where teachers’ salaries and allowances are not promptly paid, schools that have not been inspected for the last 15 years; schools where there are no discipline among other things.

The government, and especially the parents are very much concerned with the quality and volume of learning acquired by their children, wards and citizens as this is related to the quality and quantity of the contribution which the individual can make to his immediate family, community and the nation as a whole. (Thorndike, 1931).

Several studies by Sociologist, Psychologists and Educationists showed that the type of schools a learner attends has profound influence on his academic achievement. For instance, Bibby and Peil (1974) noted that children who attended private secondary schools performed better both internal and external examination than pupils in public secondary schools. This view is also supported by Lioyd (1966) as he contended further that the public schools which saw education as good thing, tended to leave the question of educational success or failure in the hands of the public and their parents. This implies that the business of education is not taken with all the seriousness it demands in the public schools. This of course is what may be regarded as the general apathy of the citizenry to government’s owned business or property. A situation that has resulted in lackadaisical attitude of government’s workers, including teachers in the public schools tend to believe that an intelligent child would succeed automatically at school without any active assistance coming from them.

In a study jointly carried out by the Federal Government of Nigeria, UNICEF and UNESCO in 1977 to monitor the learning achievement of secondary school students throughout the Federation, it was shown that most of the private schools had means in the three areas tested higher than the national means and that of their public counterpart.

Similarly, Yoloye (1998) while assessing the situation of education in Niger State compared the quality of education in five states of the federation namely, River, Imo, Enugu, Anambra and Bayelsa. He compared performance between urban and rural schools; private and public schools, as well as between male and female secondary school students. He concluded that while Niger State comes last in almost all the sub-sector analyzed, the only cheering exception is in the private schools where it performed better both in internal and external examinaton than other states and indeed exceeded the grand mean. He did not give reasons for low or high achievement.

The study therefore sought to find out if there is any difference in students’ academic attainment in internal and external social studies examination in  junior secondary schools in the said local government council areas in the study. It also highlighted the causes of such differences in academic achievement and suggested measures to rectify the differences so discovered.

1.2     Statement of the Problem

Academic performance of students in the Social Studies internal and external Examination has received much attention of late in the Nigerian educational system. At the beginning of every academic year when results are released, educational stakeholders raise a lot of concerns about the falling performance of students. In Nigeria, junior secondary Schools are three times better in internal examination than external examination. Schools provide quality education, have good supervision, high parental commitment, motivation and good methodology leading to the commitment of students in their education but the students do not have confidence enough while writing external examination and this could be as a result of strange face of the supervisor whom they are not familiar with, then this research work consider it more important to compare the relative academic performance of the junior secondary school student in both internal and external Social Studies Examination in Warri South Local Government Area.

1.3     Objectives of the Study

  1. To examine the academic performance of student`s by comparing the Social Studies internal and external Examination result of some selected secondary Schools in the said area.
  2. To investigate the factors accounting for the student’s performance in the Social Studies Examination in secondary Schools.
  3. To find ways to improve the academic performance in our secondary Schools.

1.4     Research Questions

Answers were provided to the following questions in this research work:

  1. Will there be any difference in academic performance between internal and external social studies examination in Warri South?
  2. What variables are responsible for this difference(s) in this said Town?
  3. What measures can be put in place to improve the situation?

1.5     Statement of Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a tentative statement linking two or more variable in a correlation to establish a relationship that, further subjection to test will confirm such relationship as either positive or negative. The following are the two hypotheses that are to be tested.                  

H0: Social Studies student does not perform significantly better in internal examination than external examination.           

H1: Social Studies student perform significantly better in internal examination than external examination.  

1.6     Scope of the Study

 This research work is aimed at the comparison of junior secondary school academic performance in internal and external examination in social studies in Warri south local government area. Due to current emphasis on education in the country by the government and in order to reduce the country’s academic degradation, in solving this problem, this study focused attention on this comparison and to suggest possible solution to the problem.

1.7     Limitation of the Study

The study is on the comparison of junior secondary school academic performance in internal and external examination in social studies in warri south local government area. This study is limited to government secondary schools in Delta State.

Despite the limited scope of this study certain constraints were encountered during the research of this project.  Some of the constraints experienced by the researcher were given below:

  1. Time: This was a major constraint on the researcher during the period of the work. Considering the limited time given for this study, there was not much time to give this research the needed attention.
  2. Finance: Owing to the financial difficulty prevalent in the country and it’s resultant prices of commodities, transportation fares, research materials etc. The researcher did not find it easy meeting all his financial obligations.
  3. Information Constraints: Nigerian researchers have never had it easy when it comes to obtaining necessary information relevant to their area of study from private and even government schools. The staffs in all these schools are finding it difficult to reveal their internal operations. The primary information was collected through face-to-face interview getting the published materials on this topic meant going from one library to other which was not easy.

Although these problems placed limitations on the study, but it did not prevent the researcher from carrying out a detailed and comprehensive research work on the subject matter.

1.8     Definition of Key Terms                                         

To make a research work such as this comprehensive to even an average reader, it became every important to define some salient features involved in the theme. These salient terms are defined as follows:

Curricular: It is the aggregate of courses of study given in a school, college, university, etc

Performance: Accomplishing or achievement of specific goals, objectives or set mark in any academic Endeavour. It is one of the most common criteria of evaluating effectiveness of schools.

Learning: the acquisition of knowledge or skills through experience, study, or by being taught.

Education: Education in its general sense is a form of learning in which the knowledge, skills, values, beliefs and habits of a group of people are transferred from one person to another

Students Attitude: this refers to the opinions or feelings that students usually have about their studies.

Teaching: Teaching is simply referred to as the activities of educating or instructing.

Qualified Teacher: For this study a teacher who holds the following certificate is assumed to be qualified: NCE, B.Ed., B.Sc. (Ed), B.Sc. and PGDE

Innovation: is a way of changing and adapting for the purpose of attaining certain goals and aspirations

Challenges:  Challenges is seen as a call to someone to participate in a competitive situation or fight to decide who is superior in terms of ability or strength

 

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ENTREPRENEURIAL EDUCATION

IMPACT OF ENTREPRENEURIAL EDUCATION ON DISABLED  STUDENTS IN ENUGU METROPOLIS

ABSTRACT

This study was carried out to critically examine the Impact of Entrepreneurial Education on Disabled Students in Enugu Metropolis. The study adopted a descriptive survey design in which four research questions were posed. The population of the study consisted of 9,583 disabled persons in Enugu North and Enugu East local governments of Enugu State. Simple random sampling procedure was used in selecting three (3) special education centres to represent other six (6) special education centres in Enugu Metropolis that was sampled in the study. Fourteen (14) teachers and one hundred and twenty (120) students were equally selected randomly from each of the three-special education centres making a total number of 402 respondents. A questionnaire of four-point rating scale was used as instrument for data collection. Mean statistics was used to analyze data relative to research questions with a cut-off mean score of 2.5 and percentages were used, 50% and above indicates acceptance and below represents rejected. That formed the standard for accepting or rejecting any item on the questionnaires. The result of the analyses reveals that they (disabled) face challenges when starting a business/ venture and this hinders them from becoming effective in the labour market. Challenges such as access to start-up capital, consumer discrimination which is the highest of them all, lack of confidence/ limited aspirations, training is not always tailored to individual needs and therefore of limited value to particular recipients. However already existing policy tools are not effective and efficient as the case maybe. Based on the findings, it was recommended among others that the stakeholders, government and other related/concerned bodies should encourage the special needs students by providing the necessary assistive technologies. Parent/guardians of special needs students should encourage these ones and make them feel wanted in the society instead of segregating them.

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background of Study

Worldwide, the prevalence of disability is argued to be growing, with population ageing and increasing incidence of chronic health conditions (World Health Organisation/World Bank 2011). Disability affects a wide range of socio-economic outcomes, including labour market participation, but also other factors that shape participation including education, information and transport.

The WHO (2013) (World Health Organisation) describes disability as an umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions. The impairment being a problem in body function or structure; an activity limitation being a difficulty encountered by an individual in executing task or action; while a participation restriction is termed a problem experienced by an individual’s involvement in life situations. Disability is thus not just a health problem, but a complex phenomenon, reflecting the interaction between features of a person’s body and features of the society in which he/she lives. Impairment can occur from/ at birth or any time over the course of an individual’s life, either permanently or temporarily.

As pertains to its causes, explanations abound from the mystical to the empirically researched complex happenings that only genetics can provide as is the case in Systemic Lupus Erythematosis. Mugo (2010) states that traditional and spiritual beliefs play an important role in framing up comprehensions of disability in Africa. Many communities attribute disability to witchcraft, curses or conditions afflicted by bad omen and spirits with the resulting effect being that of fear and pity towards the PWD (Persons living with Disability)leading to their isolation/discrimination.

In actual schooled sense, the causes of disability are as numerous as they are indiscriminate; encompassing everyday happen-stances like road accidents, diseases as trachoma, war injuries, and work place injuries amongst others. This being the case, it should come as a sobering realization that we are all potential candidate or already might be albeit without symptom as is the case with genetically acquired degenerative diseases. With this in mind, it should bear more on our expertise, for us in academia to pay more attention to matters of disability.

The convention on the Rights of Persons Living with Disability, an initiative of the United Nations, as quoted in the WHO website, states that around 10% of the World’s population or roughly 650 million persons live with known disability. This undisputedly constitutes the world’s largest and most widespread minority and with continued trends of rapid population growth and advances in modern medicine, posits the WHO, these figures can only rise.

The first ever world report on disability (2000) co-authored by the World Bank group and WHO holds that PWD (Persons living with Disability) generally face higher rates of poverty and are afforded fewer economic opportunities compared to persons without disability. The figures are that 20% of the world‘s poorest are disabled and living in the developing countries. This sad state of affairs can find part explanation in the ostracization of PWD from mainstream social-economic life by society.

Disabled people tend to be concentrated in lower-skilled, lower-paid occupations (Meager and Higgins 2011). Low participation rates are costly for the individuals concerned in terms of economic and psychological well-being, for governments in terms of lost output and tax revenues, and increased welfare payments, and for the society in terms of the impact of social exclusion and discrimination on civic participation and public life.

However, one possible solution to problems of low participation rates lies in the potential for disabled people to become self employed or to start and run their own businesses. The relevance of entrepreneurship education to humanity and economic growth cannot be overemphasized considering its developmental incentives in the well being of an individual and promotion of economic activities. Entrepreneurship education could take the form of technical education, business education, computer application, fine and applied arts among others.

Entrepreneurship is not just skill acquisition for acquisition sake; it is an acquisition of skills and ideas for the sake of creating employment for one’s self and also others (Garba 2010). Therefore the need for entrepreneurial education to be incorporated into special needs education curriculum for this category of persons becomes a salient issue. This is because entrepreneurship education will help unlock their potentials and pave way for their financial independence and sustainability in the face of the large scale unemployment in Nigeria.

1.2     Statement of Problem

Education in Nigeria is devoid of the element crucial to averting the surging rate of unemployment with persons with impairment/ disability in the country, therefore the breeding of psychological dependence on direct access to money.

However despite the efforts by tertiary institutions in teaching various skills and trades, coupled with learning aimed at imparting knowledge and understanding of the potential rewards for business establishment, unemployment abounds among the young: Hungra et al (2011). Brijlal (2011) asserts that only a small percentage of graduates became entrepreneurs after college.

In a bid to explain this phenomenon of poor transition rates into enterprise by graduates, numerous studies have been undertaken all over the world, with many focusing on entrepreneurial intention studies as a possible avenue for explanation of this lack of entrepreneurial behavior.  This focus has been so popular with researchers as intentions are said to be the best predictors of planned behavior.

As evidence in literature, the emphasis has been on studying entrepreneurial intent in ̒ ̒normal able-bodied persons. A clear-cut case of marginalization in academic research and knowledge against PWD in the society. This research seek to address the impact of entrepreneurial education on disabled students.

1.3     Purpose of Study

Overall, the purpose of this study is to help address a broad research question for which entrepreneurship education assessment literature has so far provided only tentative insight; whether and to what extent entrepreneurship training programs and studies help to create additional or more successful entrepreneurs. This includes:

  1. To examine the level of self employment activities among people with disabilities.
  2. To assess the challenges the disabled people face when starting a business/venture.
  3. To determine the extent to which policy support/tools on disabled are available to help them become more entrepreneurial.
  4. To ascertain the extent to which disabled students/persons benefits from entrepreneurial education.

1.4     Scope of Study

The study assessed the impact of entrepreneurial education on disabled students. The assessment was done by; the challenges faced by disabled students when starting a business, examining the level of self employment activities of people with disability, the extent to which policy tools on disabled are available and the benefits of entrepreneurial education to the disabled using Enugu metropolis as a case study.

1.5    Significance of the Study

In the introduction of Adam Smith’s world renowned book on economics, titled ‘The Wealth Of Nations’, by Alan Krueger (2003) , it is stated that the propensity to truck, barter and exchange one thing for another is common to all men, and is to be found in no other race of animals, from communistic societies to prisoner-of-war camps. Constraints can be imposed on a market, or even for the sake and purpose of this paper, disability can occur or be the case! But the rise of the market seems virtually unavoidable.

PWD in society have been marginalized long enough more so in academic research on matters of entrepreneurship. The subject of entrepreneurial intent has been researched on high and low, but empirically sound research on the same focusing on the disabled population is extremely hard to come by in literature.

Significantly, the findings of this study will aid shape the direction taken by governmental policy makers on coming up with curriculums and strategies in special needs schools which better address the entrepreneurial needs of PWD and better inform the economic empowerment programmers geared towards their emancipation by the state after college.

The research findings will also serve the parents or guardians of these students especially in guidance of career choice. Thus equipping them with foresight on how to prepare to be of best moral and material support to the soon to be granduands.

The findings will encourage teachers and students to develop skills and competencies in technologies for teaching and learning of entrepreneurship in schools. From the findings, it will further help teachers enhance their teaching skills and strategies. The teachers will use the results collected from the study to reform the content and method of teaching. The results of the study will also be of great importance to disabled students, it will improve their academic performances, job readiness, enhance their social psychological development (self-esteem, ego development, self-efficacy); and perceived improved health status etc.

Finally non state actors who are a crucial social economic development agents will benefit greatly from the findings of this study. Based on the same these actors can better formulate programmes and strategies on how to economically empower the students after college.

1.6    Research Questions

  1. What is the level of self-employment activities among people with disabilities?
  2. What barriers do people with disabilities face when starting a business/ venture?
  3. What are the policy tools/ support available to help those with disabilities become more entrepreneurial?
  4. What are the benefits of entrepreneurship for people with disabilities?

 

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PARENTAL PARTICIPATION IN CHILD EDUCATION

EFFECT OF PARENTAL PARTICIPATION IN ORPHAN AND VULNERABLE CHILD EDUCATION

ABSTRACT

This study entitled „ The Effect Of Parental Participation In Orphan And Vulnerable Child Education ( A Case Study Of Selected Schools In Chikun LGA in Kaduna State ‟ was intended to assessing the effect of parental active participation in Orphan and Vulnerable Children(OVC) in chikun LGA of Kaduna state. The main objectives of the study were to examine the extent to which parental commitment to school work had an influence on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in chikun Local government Area ; Determine the influence of parent’s involvement at home on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in Chikun Local government Area; Examine the Influence of Parents educational background on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in Chikun Local government Area; Determine the influence of the parent’s socio-economic status on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in Chikun Local government Area to identify the influence of financial income of parents on girl child education in selected local governments areas of Kaduna state. Random sampling technique was employed, 180 respondents formed the sample size of the study, and structured questionnaire was used for collecting data from the respondents. The answers to the research questions were provided with tables of frequencies and percentages. It was found that there was no significant difference in the opinion of the teacher and parent on the Parental commitment to school work which have influence on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in the selected school of chikun local government areas in Kaduna state. On the relationship between parental commitments to academic work at home on the education of the Orphan and Vulnerable child there was significant relationship. Parental educational background was found to influence the orphan and vulnerable child. The Orphan and Vulnerable child education in the selected schools in chikun local government areas of Kaduna state is significantly influenced by the financial income status of parents. Based on the findings of this study, it was recommended that government at various levels should engendered economic empowerment of parents by providing employment opportunities, provision of credit facilities for farmers and other such avenues by which local population can be made to be more productive so as to enhance their economic standard of living. The schools should also organize orientation and training programmes through members of the PTA to create awareness among parents on the need for the orphan and vulnerable Child education.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1         Background to the Study

The home is the prime social institution for children. The child here requires care, proper attention and commitments from the family. In it, the primary shaping of human character takes place (Hurlock, 1974). Nwa-chill (1984) stated that the home/family as a primary social groups and the smallest social unit where the child‟s upbringing must begin since his birth. These upbringings develop the child‟s principles which grow, enlarge with it making the child‟s integral part. The personality development pattern is established in the young within the framework of his relationship with the parent. Parents constitute the chief societal influence with the child experience right from the child’s early years (Hurlock, 1974, p. 10).

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC, 1990) emphasized that childhood is a period of entitlement as a result of the mental and physical susceptibility of the child. Consequently, the obligation of the family, primarily the parents, is significant in preparing the child for life as an individual in society. This responsibility is clear in Article 18 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) which asserts that both parents and in the absence of parents‟, legal guardians have the primary responsibility for the nurturing and development of the child.

In the home, the ideology of “motherhood” portrays mothers as being the ultimate caregivers. They invest most if not all of their time on their children which sometimes affects their job and role in the labour market. Although “stays at home moms” are common, women are seen as spending more time with children than men. They are commonly the nurturers of the children and support emotional growth and stability. Fathers now more than ever are spending more time with their children. Whereas in the past, fathers were the breadwinners and the mothers stayed at home to cook, clean and take care of children. The roles are starting to reverse. Fathers are participating more in parenting roles and taking on responsibilities such as bathing, dressing, feeding, changing diapers and comforting children (Rain and William, 2011, p. 7).

A parent is the child’s first and most important teacher in life and he or she is expected to play an active role in the child’s preschool journey because it is believed a parent and child should grow together and have a rewarding preschool experience. This follows subsequently by school life where academic performance is expected to be high. The parent is supposed to be supportive to the child in all aspects which include socially, physically, mentally and also emotionally (Epstein, 2001). Studies have indicated that children whose parents and/or other significant adults share in their formal education tend to do better in school. Some benefits that have been identified that measure parental involvement in education include; higher grades and test scores, long term academic achievement, positive attitudes and behaviours and more successful programs (Epstein, p.3).

Parental participation in pre-school activities includes a wide range of behaviours but generally refers to parents’ and family members’ use and investment of resources in their children’s schooling. These investments can take place in or outside of school, with the intention of improving children’s learning. Parental involvement at home can include activities such as discussions about school, helping with homework, and reading with children. Involvement at school may include parents volunteering in the classroom, attending workshops, or attending school plays and sporting events (Rain and William, 2011, p. 7).

The technique employed by parents in the treatment of the child serves as a formative factor on the child’s behaviour. Such techniques include incentives they offer, the

frustration they impose, their methods of control together with the character of their general attitude towards the child (Hurlock, 1974, p. 10), the other requirement the child needs is playing materials. Parent must provide some of demonstration and instructional materials. These materials are important because they help the child to be able to play, assist in concept building, promotion of discovery and creativity and enhance interaction with others as they play. These playing materials include the balls, track suits, toys, Picture books, clay ,paints, blackboard, beads, large blocks, medium blocks, flower title, concentric figures, dolls, nest of rings, cars, puzzles, pyramid, wooden animals, balls, pull toys, cars, trains, trucks, wagon, seesaw and slides etc (Frost, Wortham & Reifel, 2008).

According to Lundahl & Harris (2006), opined that effective parent participation, training and family interventions can change parents‟ attitudes and behaviours, promote protective factors, and lead to positive outcomes for both parents and children. So also Gadsden (2003) says greater parental involvement at early stage in children‟s learning, positively affects a child‟s school performance including higher academic achievement( as cited by Kotirde and Yonus 2014, p.1).

Kotride and Yanus (2014,para.2) also cited in his work researcher who opined that although parental participation is important through all the years of school, it changes as children develop; therefore, a student in middle or high school benefits from different parental participation than does an elementary school student. Whereas parental participation for quality education in elementary school may have focused on assisting a child with homework, in the middle or high school, the student‟s countless need might be assistance with determining what courses to take to ensure college or career readiness. Rowan-Kenyon (2009) opined “parents participation and encourage quality opportunity through their expectations for their children‟s educational quality and occupational

attainment which has was refereed to some authors as “academic socialization” and emphasized its importance in middle school.

Research clearly demonstrates that there is a direct relationship between parent engagement and children‟s language and reading skills, ability to relate to and interact with others, they may be peers or adults, and their feelings of positive self-image (Berla, Henderson & Kerewsky, 1989). Parental Participation in their child‟s education appears to be on a decline locally despite being associated with positive outcomes for students. From researches, parents‟ participation in children‟s education is largely considered a panacea for low student achievement. Nevertheless, it also sets the stage for students to acquire and demonstrate better social skills, improved behaviour, and adaptability skills in challenging situations.

Furthermore, articles 28 and 29 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) elucidate the rights of the child to education were for the purpose of development of the child‟s personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to the fullest potential. Undoubtedly, as can be garnered from the aforementioned, the role of parents and/or guardians is inherent in a child‟s education.

1.2         Statement of the Problem

The 2008 Situation Assessment and Analysis on orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) in Nigeria carried out by the federal Ministry of women Affairs and Social Development reveals that in Nigeria, 17.5 million children are vulnerable children and most are orphans. Although it is customary in Nigeria for extended family and community members to care for orphans and vulnerable children (OVC), the capacity and resources of these individuals and households have been overextended by the growing number of OVC and the complexity of their needs. UNICEF, 2008 Assessment show that about 9.7 million children these growing up without one or both of their parents. Many more are at risk of separation, due to the impact of poverty, disability and such crises as natural disaster and armed

conflict. Children without parental care find themselves at a higher risk of discrimination, inadequate care, abuse and exploitation, and their well-being is often insufficiently monitored (Linus 2015).

Parents/ Guardian of the Orphan and Vulnerable Children (OVC) are often faced with unique challenges that hinder them from meeting the learners‟ needs. their involvement were influenced by so many factors ranging from ignorance, poverty, cultural factors, distance between the home and where the school is situated, utility, insufficient time, level of education of parent, order of priority, set home environment, opinion to voluntary work at school, time taken to respond to school activities for example buying instruction materials, attending parents meetings, conferences, sports ,Open House day, disciplinary cases and also discussing the academic progress of the child and value of education among others academically (Mwirichia, 2013. p 15). If the above needs are not attended to, there is a likelihood of child not performing well because he or she is not adequately supported. Insufficient parental involvement may lead to poor performance of the child leading to child deprivation.

These factors above have been found to foster negative involvement which limits parents from participating in the child‟s education. The persistence of this ugly trend if allowed to go on unabated, would definitely affect the fourth commitment of the National Priority Agenda (NPA) for vulnerable children in Nigeria in line with Nigerians Vision 2020 (NV20) and the fourth goal of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of education for all child by 2030. Hence, efforts must be intensified to ameliorate the situation, in order to facilitate meaningful national development. One of such ways to ensure the resolution of this ugly trend is to embark on a study that are aimed at identifying remote factors responsible for lack of parental support towards orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) education.

The Vulnerable Children especially the handicapped are regarded as liability in the society. Most handicapped children are neglected not only by the society but by their own immediate family members too. They are isolated in terms of educational provision and even where education is provided, only a few benefits from it. It is against this background that this study sets out to assess how parental involvement influence goes a long way to influence the orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) education in Kaduna state.

This study aims at assessing the effect of parental active participation in Orphan and Vulnerable Children(OVC) education and providing solutions to role of parents in Orphan and Vulnerable Children(OVC) education in chikun LGA of Kaduna state, Nigeria.

1.3        Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to critically examine the impact, role and effectiveness of a parent of in the life of an OVC education in Nigeria, specifically the geographical location of Chikun Local Government Area, Kaduna State. The specific objectives include the following:

  1. Examine the extent to which parental commitment to school work have an influence on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in chikun Local government Area
  2. Determine the influence of parent‟s involvement at home on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in Chikun Local government Area
  3. Examine the Influence of Parents educational background on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in Chikun Local government Area
  4. Determine the influence of the parent‟s socio-economic status on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVCs) education in Chikun Local government Area

1.4          Research Questions

  1. Parental commitment to school work; what impact does it have on OVC education in the selected schools in chikun local government areas of the state?
  2. Does parent‟s involvement at home have an effect on Orphan and Vulnerable Child‟s (OVC) education in the selected schools in Chikun local government areas of the state?
  3. To what extent does the parent educational background affect Orphan and Vulnerable Child‟s (OVC) education?
  4. What is the influence of the parent‟s socio-economic status on the Orphan and Vulnerable Child‟s (OVC) education?

1.5        Significance of the Study

Early intervention and prevention practices are greatly needed to facilitate the development of literacy skills and the prevention of academic, behavioral, and social problems among today‟s population of students. Parent participation may have an important role in helping young children experience later school success. For instance, Parents participation has been directly linked with academic achievement (Jeffries, 2012). However, further research is needed in this area to identify ways in which Parennt participation can be promoted and increased, particularly with Vulnerable children. Children who grow up in poverty are at higher risk for negative outcomes such as lower levels of cognitive development, academic achievement, and socio-emotional well-being (Allhusen et al., 2005).

As such the study would provide a feedback mechanism to parents‟ through which they would be able to judge themselves to see whether or not they are within the realm of the larger society as far as parental involvement of Child Education is concerned.

It would assist teachers and policy makers to have better understanding of the parent’s expectation about their children’s education and education Policy Makers with such information, which could facilitate planning and decision making, leading to the formulation of Child Education-Friendly Policies.

The study would equally be of help to fellow students who would want to embark on similar research work. It would provide them with the rudiment/elements of research report writing as well as relevant literature, which could serve as a starting point.

1.6 Scope of the Study

Childs‟ achievements in education are influenced by many people, processes and institutions. Parents, the broader family, peer groups, neighbourhood influences, schools and other bodies other bodies (e.g. churches, clubs) are all implicated in shaping children‟s

progress towards their self fulfilment. The children themselves, of course, with their unique abilities, temperaments and propensities play a central role informing and reforming their behaviour, aspirations and achievements. Also, there are several factors that may influence parental involvement in the modelling, cognitive and behavioural parent involvement dimensions. This study however, focused on parents‟ role construction because two factors which are educational background and socio-economic status of the parent which are likely to have a considerable influence on parental involvement. In addition, the study targeted parents of children in the higher primary school to senior secondary school. Due to the complexities involved, the in study will not focus on other factors which may affect parent involvement. It is delimited to parents with children in lower primary schools because children in this class can only read simple story books and will not understand the need for the research.

1.7 Definition of Terms

In this project the following terms will be used based on the following definitions.

Child: Nigeria defines an orphan as a child (0-17 years) who has lost one or both parents.

Vulnerable Child: A child is vulnerable if, because of the circumstances of birth or immediate environment, is prone to abuse or deprivation of basic needs, care and protection and thus disadvantaged relative to his or her peers (FMWA&SD 2008). A vulnerable child is one (that): with inadequate access to education, health and other social support, has a chronically ill parent, lives in a household with terminally or chronically ill parent(s) or caregiver(s), lives outside of family care (lives with extended family, in institution, or on street), is infected with HIV (FMWA&SD 2006).

An Orphan is a boy or girl child under the age of 18 years who lost one parent (maternal or paternal orphan) or both parents (total orphan). OVC: this means an Orphan and Vulnerable Child(ren)

Education: It is the aggregate of all the processes through which a person develops abilities attitudes and other forms of behaviour, which are positive in the society in which he/she grows-the development of personality.

Provider/Caregiver: Anyone who cares for OVC. These include parents, guardians, members of extended families and other home caregivers such as neighbours, community leaders. Also includes those providing or overseeing social services or making referrals such as community leaders, police officer, social workers, health care worker, teachers who have received training in how to address the needs of OVC.. For the purpose of this study Provider or caregiver will be seen as a parent.

Parents: A mature individual (Male or Female) who takes care of a child. He/she does not necessarily have to be the one who gave birth to the child.

Parental: this is the responsibility of parents/guardian t their child/ward as regards his or her education.

Participation: The act of taking part in an activity or events, in this case the upbringing and education of the child. It would will be used interchangeable with the word „‟involvement‟‟

Parental Involvement: Activities that parent engage in at home and at school and positive attitudes parents have toward their child‟s education, school, and teacher”

Poor Homes: Not having enough money for basic needs

Socio-Economic: Relating to, or involving a combination of social and economic factors.

 

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Corruption on Educational Service Delivery

The Effect of Corruption on Educational Service Delivery in Kaduna State: 2011 – 2019

ABSTRACT

This research work appraises “the effect of corruption on educational service delivery in Kaduna State: 2011 – 2019”. This study therefore looks at what authors and scholars have said concerning the subject matter as discussed in the literature review. It identifies corruption as an obstacle to the set objectives of the educational sector in service delivery as well as the attainment of the nation’s desire for manpower and national development especially in this period of global competition. It also stressed the various links through which corruption is perpetuated in the educational sector with its impact and consequences. The researcher used survey designs to carry out the study. The sample size of the population was 80. So 80 questionnaires were administered to 80 respondents in Kaduna State. But, sixty-six (66) usable questionnaires provided the database (given an 82.5% response rate) in this study. The data obtained was analysed using frequencies and simple percentage. The data collected from Kaduna State being the case study were analysed in chapter four. The work makes recommendation on some measures to check the corrupt practices giving that the phenomenon of corruption in the Nigeria educational system remains one of the greatest obstacles to the nation’s aspirations and realization towards human capacity building for national development.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background of the Study

Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habit in an individual so that he/she becomes useful to him/herself and to the society at large. This education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, or acts may be considered educational. Formal education takes place in the school system under the guidance of educators. The invaluable roles and contributions of education in the development of individual and society cannot be overemphasized. Advancement in modern world is impossible without investment in human capital. Investment in human capital precipitates increase in knowledge gotten through training and education which have positive effect on the economy. Education therefore, begets development. Education increases the production of productive labours as it leads to high output in the economy thereby bringing about economic growth in the nation. It is stated in the National Policy on Education that education is an instrument that fosters the worth development of the individual’s sake, and for general development of the society. It favours the training of the mind in the understanding of the world around. It advocates the acquisition of appropriate skills and competencies in equipping the individual for the development of the country.

From the aforementioned goals, it could be seen that educational institution is an industry where future leaders, workers, doctors, lawyers, politicians, teachers, thinkers etc are produced. Any taint on this institution endangers the future and development of individuals and the nation at large.

Corruption and management of education with respect to the leadership and management of our education system hamstring the goals of National Policy on Education. The rate of corruption, bad leadership and mismanagement of educational resources is alarming.

Corruption is seen as a psychosocial beast that has been attacking different sectors of the society.  Education having been described by the National Policy on Education (2004) as an instrument of Par Excellence is an effective tool for economic, social, cultural and political transformation and national development. It encourages social and cultural integration by inculcating an attitude of social cooperation of consciousness. The Nigerian educational system has made provision of various levels of education from the primary school level (basic education secondary school to the tertiary education , Universities inclusive) in order to service the entire populace for manpower and national development. The role of education to any nation or society especially in this Age of Globalization cannot be overemphasized. The deeming effect of corruption on the educational sector cannot be underestimated. Corruption is the abuse of public power for private gain. Bribery, misappropriation of public fund, nepotism and favouritism the formulation of laws or regulations for private gain are common examples of corruption. To fight corruption the past government particularly Olusegun Obasanjo’s administration between 2000 and 2003 introduced several measures such as the establishment of the Economic and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC) and Independent Corrupt Practices Commission (ICPC).

It is therefore in the light of the foregoing that this study seeks to appraise on the effect of corruption on educational service delivery in Kaduna State from 2011 to 2019.

1.2       Statement of the Problem

Presently, there is no doubt to say that schools in Nigeria has been regarded as the most patronized sector by parents as a result. This perhaps may be due to the fact that it is the foundation of the whole educational pursuit, which is expected to provide literacy and enlightenment to the citizens. The importance of education can therefore be seen in the sense that parents have chosen to send their children to private schools in other to pass examinations so as to meet up with their counterparts. (Oni, 2008). What this means is that private schools have become a special centre where parents can register their children in other to write their final examinations without stress and reading, which most of the private schools have been involved without respect to policies on educational service delivery.

Corruption, as an ethical and social problem which varies from one secondary school to another, ministry to ministry, place to place, time to time, culture to culture and with the level of economic development, is a global phenomenon that affects especially private secondary schools in Nigeria. Corruption is one of the major causes of examinational malpractices in secondary schools today using Kaduna as a case study, (Aluko, 2008). It occurs at all levels of schools in Kaduna both directly and indirectly. All over Nigeria, the perception of corruption especially in private schools is very high and uncontrollable. This is because, corruption undermines every aspect of the educational system among which are, political development, economic development, social development and so on.

It therefore in the light of the above that the study seeks to appraise the effect of corruption on educational service delivery in Kaduna State from 2011 to 2019.

1.3     Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study is appraise the effect of corruption on educational service delivery in Kaduna State from 2011 to 2019.

Other specific objectives are to:

  1. Identify the causes of corruption in the educational service delivery in Kaduna State from 2011 to 2019.
  2. Find out the forms of corruption in the educational service delivery in Kaduna State from 2011 to 2019.
  3. Determine the effects of corruption on educational service delivery in Kaduna State from 2011 to 2019.

1.4       Research Questions

The following are the research questions formulated from the objectives of the study to guide the research:

  1. What are the causes of corruption in the educational service delivery in Kaduna State from 2011 to 2019?
  2. What are the forms of corruption in the educational service delivery in Kaduna State from 2011 to 2019?
  3. What are the effects of corruption on educational service delivery in Kaduna State from 2011 to 2019?

1.5       Research Hypothesis

Research hypothesis is a tentative and predictive answer to a question which is subjected to the power of verification and its formulation can be expressed as follows:

Ho = There is no effect of corruption on educational service delivery from 2011 to 2019

H1 = There is effect of corruption on educational service delivery from 2011 to 2019

1.6       Significance of the Study

The study being “Appraisal on the Effect of Corruption on Educational Service Delivery in Kaduna State: 2011 – 2019” will enable readers and future researcher to have a clear view of the effect of corruption on educational service delivery in Nigeria.

The research will assist reader and students who might want to carry out research work on the subject matter and will also act as reference material for them.

1.7       Scope and Limitations of the Study

The study examined “Appraisal on the Effect of Corruption on Educational Service Delivery in Kaduna State: 2011 – 2019”.

Most research works usually come with one challenge or the other and therefore, this will not be an exemption. In projection of this study, the research work will be constrained with time as the research work is clashing with the academic workloads of the researcher.

1.8       Definitions of Key Terms

Corruption: Dishonest or fraudulent conduct by those in power, typically involving bribery.

Education: The process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, especially at a school or university.

Educational Service Delivery: Improving access to education services and ensuring that students learn are essential to expanding opportunities for all citizens.

Effect: A change which is a result or consequence of an action or other cause.

Service Delivery: The act of providing service to people.

 

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ASSESSMENT OF GIRL-CHILD EDUCATION IN KANO MUNICIPAL LGA OF KANO STATE

ASSESSMENT OF GIRL-CHILD EDUCATION IN KANO MUNICIPAL LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF KANO STATE

ABSTRACT

Girl – Child education has been a subject of serious concern in Nigeria. This is because this aspect of education has been bedeviled with problems especially in the Northern parts of the country. Researchers (Usman, 2007) and Daiyabu, 2008) have expressed concern about it and about the various forms of discriminations and sharp practices against the girl-child. Thus, this study assesses the Girl-child Education in Kano; and reiterated on the degree at which identified factors i.e socio-cultural, religious and economic factors affect the girl-child education in the Kano Municipal Local Government Areas. The study adopted survey method as qualitative and quantitative research design. The sample consisted of 399 respondents randomly selected from the thirteen wards that constituted Kano Municipal Local Government Areas. Five research questions were raised and analysed using statistical methods i.e frequency distribution tables, simple percentages and cumulative frequency. The results revealed that socio- economic factors, socio-cultural affect participation of girl child in secondary education. The research work also showed that government policies and programmes have assisted in addressing the menace militating against Girl-child education and finally the research drawn conclusion that there exists a significant improvement in Girl-child education in Kano Municipal Local Government Area between 2010 to 2015 as percentage increased in female students enrolment in the end of session exams (WAEC) is greater than 10%. Based on these findings, it was recommended that girls should be given equal chance as boys in education; there should be a legal support for girl-child education and government, immediate community members, parent cum religion leaders should play their respective roles in encouraging Girl-child education in Nigeria.

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background of the Study

Education is generally conceptualized as a continuous process of learning from the birth of an individual to his death. It commences from a child’s home and continues even after school to adulthood-till death. Broadly speaking, education is the totality of all the processes by which a child or young adult develops his abilities, attitude and other forms of behaviour which are of positive value to the society in which he/she lives. This shows that education is not just the acquisition of knowledge, but also the utilization of the acquired knowledge (Asiegbu et al, 2015).

Thus, the essentiality of education in functioning and advancing the modern world cannot be overemphasized; it is also fundamental to self-awareness, self-identity, and self-development. Without it, mankind is reduced to instinct and the realm of animals. With it, males and females can improve their lives and learn about one another and the world. More specifically, education for females is important because it helps them unleash and develop their potential (Adam, 2015).

Educating females in the developing world has substantial returns and in most cases exceeds the returns on males. According to a research by Chaaban and Cunningham,’’ an educated female is a great benefit not just to herself, but to her community’’ (Aliyu; 2009).  Furthermore, in recent work from general surveys and sector-specific research reveals that educating females bring about various benefits, including improvement to family health; lower infant mortality rates, greater family wage-earning power, and the intellectual development of the family and, thus the community. But despite the benefits to be accrued from educating the female child, there are still some challenges militating against obtaining education.

Statistically, Women are over half of the world‘s population, yet they do two-thirds of the world‘s work, earn one-tenth of the world‘s income, and own less than one- tenth of the world‘s poverty. Thus the above statistic depicts the plights of women worldwide. Of the 1.3 billion people in poverty, 70% are women; women earn three-fourths of the income that men earn in the non-agricultural sector; women occupy only 10% of the parliamentary seats and only 6% of cabinet positions in 55 countries throughout the world; of the total burden of work, women carry an average of 53% in the developing countries and 51% in industrialized countries; of the world‘s 900 million non-illiterate persons, 65% are women due to the lack of educational opportunities; worldwide, 76 million more boys are enrolled in primary and secondary schools than girls (UN, 2007 in Eweniyi, and Usman 2013). 

UNICEF (2003) noted that in the global political arena, the ongoing debate and action for the upliftment of the girl-child continue to stimulate the involvement of designated UN agencies. Notable among the range of initiatives is that of the United Nations Girls Education Initiative (UNGE) which are aspect of the Millennium Development Goals; The latter was established in April 2000. It draws from the constitution of 13 UN entities and charges like-minded national and international actors to work in concert with the programme to obtain Universal Primary Education and also, by 2015, to bridge the gender status encountered in primary and secondary education. According to Akinpelu (2007), Girl-child education and school attendance trail behind boys in nearly every developing nation. There is no gain saying that education is the key to the advancement of girls and women. Emphasis on the need for girl-child education prompted this study. According to UNICEF (2008), Nigeria is among the West African Countries that have highest number of girls that were out of school.

UNICEF (2008) added that girls make up the majority of the nearly 120 million children who are out of school and even greater majority of those who get opportunity of education do not reach the fifth grade.  Magaji (2010) observed that even though education is regarded as a human right for the realization of human dignity, many factors have been found to be responsible for the low enrolment of girls into schools when compared to the enrolment of boys. Among these factors, according to her, are poverty, socio-cultural impediments, religious misinterpretation of Holy Book; societal negative attitude to women education, early marriage and gender biases. These factors, of course, impede the progress and development of women in society.

 In relation to the above; it has been revealed that Girl-child education has suffered a lot in the Nigeria society particularly in the northern Nigeria. Culturally, women are confined to their traditional roles with lots of sanctions imposed on them either by custom, norms or religion. The girl-child education in Kano state has been lagging behind and one can wonder why the situation should persist especially in respects to the clear provisions in the National Policy on Education that ‘’education is a right for every Nigerian Child’’. The National Policy on Education (2004) also has as its 5th objective as the building of a “bright land full of opportunities for all individual irrespective of gender”. Thus, The National Philosophy of Education of Nigeria is based on “the integration of the individual into a sound and effective citizen and to provide equal educational opportunities for all citizens of the Nation at primary, secondary and tertiary levels, both inside and outside the formal system” (Asiegbu, 2015).

Global trends have also shown the essentiality of educating the girl-child for instance; the Universal Declaration in Tehran in 1968 on Human Rights which stress education as a right of every individual irrespective of sex. Also the 1960 United Nations Article 10 of the Convention against women (CEDAW). Has a major aim of promoting gender equality in education. Several scholarly survey on ground revealed that Kano society accommodate discrimination against girl-child in the access to basic education. If this trend continues in Kano State, the developmental growth of the area would be hampered.

While myriad of studies by expert organizations, patrons, and policymakers have shown that education for females in northern Nigeria is important as many benefits associated with education were also disclosed in their works, they have, however, failed to show the causative factors affecting females in Northern Nigeria in the process of attaining a formal education. This research work intends to identify the causative factor affecting Girl-child education in Kano; and equally examine if there is any significant improvement in Girl-child education in the state and provide valid recommendation on how to rectify the identified causative factor affecting Girl-child education.

1.2     Statement of Problem

The problem of girl-child education is not a regional, state, national or continent but a global issue of concern. About 35% of the world’s girls are not in school as at 2012 and from this 18% are in Africa more specifically in sub Saharan Africa which is 12% (Eweniyi and Usman 2013).

According to a study conducted by UNICEF and world education forum in 2012, girls constitute the largest population of illiterate children (28%) in the world till date. Thus, estimation in 2012 indicated that the number of children out of school had been brought down to about 115 million worldwide; 62 million of which were girls. While there were more children than ever in the world’s primary schools, hence too many of these victims were girls. In Nigeria Statistics show glaring imbalances against girls in enrolment, attendance and completion rates in all levels of education, particularly in the northern parts of the country, due to a variety of socio-cultural and religious factors among others (Eweniyi and Usman. 2013).

Despite numerous policies and programmes designed by the Nigerian government in addressing Girl-child education programmes among which are the Universal Primary Education (1976), the National Policy on Education (NPE) (1977); lowering of cut-off points for admission of girls into secondary schools; scholarships into Science/Technology and Mathematics Education (STME); the promulgation of an edict banning the withdrawal of girls from schools for marriage, the production of blue print on women education by the Federal Ministry of Education (1987) and the declaration of free education for girls in many states in Nigeria (1988) Yet, many girls have not gone to school or have withdrawn from school particularly in northern Nigeria. (Aliyu, 2009)

According to UNICEF standards, Nigeria has not been assessed to have fared well enough in terms of the social indicators of education, as determinants of the overall indices of child development (UNICEF, 1995, F.M.W and SD, 1996; Adam, 2015). It is obvious that there are social, economic and political problems bedeviling the Nigerian children.

In the development of Islam which is the religion majority practiced in Kanos, the teaching of the Prophet (SWA) and verses of the Qur’an help improve the state of females. Females were given rights to own property, obtain an education, and to choose their marriage mates. The Prophet is said to have written numerous chapters that helped shape civilization and one of those verses dealt with education, including this verse: “the pursuit of knowledge is a duty of every Muslim, man and woman. (Aseigbu et al, 2015:2)

In spite of the above efforts which were attempted to alleviate problems related to girl child education but still there are the causative factors affecting Girl-child education in Kano. So this study intended to identify the causative factor affecting Girl-child education in Kano; the research works also tried to assess if there is any significant improvement in Girl-child education in Kano and provide valid recommendation how to rectify the identified causative factor affecting Girl-child education.

1.3     Research Questions

  1. What are the causative factors affecting Girl-child education in Kano?
  2. Are there any significant benefits in educating Girl-child in Kano?
  3. What can be done to promote high level of Girl-child education in Kano?
  4. Does the government play paramount roles in addressing Girl-child education in Nigeria?
  5. Is there any significant improvement in Girl-child education in Kano Municipal LocalGovernment Area since 2010 to 2015?

1.4     Objectives of the Study

  1. To identify the causative factors affecting Girl-child education in Kano
  2. To examine if there is any significant benefits in educating Girl-child in Kano
  3. To proffer valid recommendation on Girl-child education in Kano
  4. To assess if there are significant improvement in Girl-child education in Kano Municipal Local Government Area since 2010 to 2015
  5. To evaluate the role of the government in addressing Gil-child education in Nigeria

1.5     Significance of the Study

The results of the study would be significant for a number of reasons among which are that it would become a reference point for decision makers and educational planners to realize the socio-cultural, economic and religious factors affecting the advancement of girl-child education in the Northern Nigeria.

Furthermore, the research work would also serve as a source of enlightenment to parents and guardians on the values of educating the girl-child thereby erasing all the earlier beliefs about educating the girls. In addition it would also sensitize governments and other agencies concerned with children education in the area to be gender sensitive and ensure gender streaming in admission, award of scholarships and recruitment into various levels and positions.

It is also hoped that this will in-turn enhance girl-child education which will lead to their contributions to the development of Kano State and to participate fully in developing herself, siblings, husband, home and the whole nation and will not be misused, harassed, subjected and maltreated again. In fact the benefits are innumerable. Thus, it would serve as a point of advocacy for the rights of the girl-child to education and equality in other spheres. 

1.7     Scope and Limitation

This research work will only focus on Girl-child education in Nigeria; and will be narrowed down to Kano particularly Kano Municipal City). Hence, the delimitations of the studies is to evaluate, examine and assess Girl-child education in Kano between 2005-2015. Therefore its findings are mainly to the area of the study.

 

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